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- w 1 BOARD OF ECONOMIC WARFARE . 
Office of Economic Warfare Analysis’ 
Far Eastern Division 


AGRICULTURE IT TUE NETHERXANDS INDIES 
I. Rubber ( Hevea Brasiliensls ) 


> > 

3 . » 


May 5, 1942 


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<?*■ CONDITIONS OF GBOY.TH AID HARVESTING 

.. . ' . " . ' 

•. The Hevea brasiliensis belongs- to the family of Euphorbiaceae 
and grows to a height of about eighty feet. 


Optimum physical and'economic conditions under which the plant 
grows in the Netherlands East Indies include: 


Soil 

„ * 

The Hevea plant is not too particular about the nature of the 
soil in which it grows. It thrives in sandy soil as well as in 
CJ - a 7> provided it is not too poor in plant nourishment. Heavy clay, 
soil provides a fruitful mud in the rainy season. 

• • Subsoil 

A sour soil is unsuitable for Hevea cultivation, unless it 
is well drained, the subterranean water level may not exceed throe 
feet. If necessary a calcium fertiliser is used. 

Drainage 


Drainage is too expensive to be undertaken and is unnecessary 
as this is achieved by terraces in rolling terrain. The usual care 
must bo taken to provide ditches or curb-pits to prevent the top¬ 
soil from washing away. Any superabundance of water (over 3’) in 
the subsoil must, however, be drained or otherwise eliminated. 


Direction of Slope 


Hevea grows best in a warm humid climatej consequently it is 
generally planted as near to sea level as possible. Elevations 
over 2000 foot arc considered unsatisfactory. Therefore, it is 
seldom grown in sharply rolling terrain and the direction of the 
slope docs not have to bo taken into consideration. 

Rainfall 


Precipitation is given in measurements taken at Buitcnzorg, 
Java, whore the government maintained experimental rubber planta¬ 
tions. Buitcnzorg, at 873 foot ‘is considered an ideal environment 
for Hevea cultivation. 

Average annual precipitation: 168 inches 

Absolute daily maximum: ' 5 . 5 - n-- 

Average number of rainy days annually: 238 


v, 

4 






Seasonal Distribution in Inches 


Jan. Feb. Mar, April May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. 

16.3 14.8 16.5 17. S 14.4 10.7 7.3 9.6 12.6 17.2 17.6 12.5 


Temperature 1/ 


Hevea cultivation requires an even temperature ranging between 
77°F, and 86°F. There is little variation in the seasonal range 
in the Indies and temperatures do not vary greatly from day to night. 
Temperature readings are taken at Batavia (at sea level) and at 
Bandoeng (2,34-6’), as ideal elevations for rubber cultivation are 
found only within these limits. 


Temperatures 


Batavia 


Bandoeng 


Average annual 
Absolute maximum 
Absolute minimum 
Average maximum 
Average minimum 


78.6° 

96.4° 

64.9 

86 , 2 ° 

73 6 


■71.7 

93.6' 

52.2 

81.5 

61.6 


F 


Methods of Production 


• Elevation . As Hevea grows best in .a humid, warm climate, sites 
a little above sea level are generally chosen, although some planta¬ 
tions are located in regions a few hundred feet higher. Buitenzorg 
(873’) is considered an excellent center for Hevea cultivation. 

Growth of Hevea trees is slower at 2000 feet, and tapping takes place 
later in the life of the tree than it does in the plains. However, 
results are otherwise no less favorable than on plantations at lower 
altitudes. 


Preparation of terrain . No great preparation of the soil is 
necessary. Rolling terrain is terraced and curb pits are dug to pre¬ 
vent the topsoil from being washed away. Attention is paid to the 
accessibility of young trees to soft light and air. Woody areas are 
well cleared and all dead wood and stumps are removed to prevent 
root diseases from attacking the trees. Particular care is taken 
to pull up all the destructive ’’alang-alang” reed-grass. 


l/Temperature fails 1° every 328 feet of ascent.. 











- 3 - 


Seeds . It has been proved that the seeds of an individual tree 
arc identical, thus the proper choice of seeds will succeed in 
propagating pure strain Hovea. At the start of the dry monsoon the 
leaves turn yellow and fall, shortly leaving the tree bare. This is 
the n v7intcring" of Kevca trees. Thereafter, even in the dryest season 
new green leaves appear, followed by the small white blossoms. July 
and August is blooming time in Java, but in Sumatra the season is 
different and irregular. Six months later (February in Buitcnzorg) 
the pods, which are encased in a black skin, ripen. Each one contains 
throe fairly large seeds. At the moment of ripening the pod bursts 
with a loud noise and the seeds are hurled several yards. Around one 
p.m., at which time many burst simultaneously, it sounds like a bom¬ 
bardment in the plantation. 

* . ' ■ " ;* ] 

t “ * 

Seeding . While seeds can be successfully planted directly in 
plantations it is preferable to start the seeds in nursery beds. 

Seeds are laid horizontally, clone to each other in seed beds and 
covered with a layer of reed-grass. As scon as seeds germinate, 
plants are removed to nursery beds. 


Transplanting ana spacing . Seedlings are planted about 5 to 6 
inches apart in nursery beds, lust below the soil. Care is necessary 
in the working of nursery beds. Fruitful soil is chosen and beds 
are laid out in strips about 4 feet long and I-y feet wide. These beds 
are net roofed over; at most a light shadowing is achieved with ferns 
during the first days. 

Kevca grows quickly in height. If "stumps” are desired tops 
are cut off. Sometimes in Java and Sumatra, where seed is expen¬ 
sive, the top halves are made into slips and planted. Thus, twice 
as much plant material is obtained from one seed. 

y 

When plants in nursery beds are as thick as a finger, (about 
8 or 9 months old) stumps arc made. These should never be too thick. 
Plants are pilled out of the ground and cut diagonally through the root 
as well as the stem with a sharp knife. The cut is sometimes coated 
with tar. These stumps are extremely hardy, and can be shipped long 
distances. 

Spacing is an important and much disputed factor. At present 
12 1 x 24’, or 16» x 16* '(or 18* x 13’), is generally accepted as the 
most satisfactory. Besides giving more trees per tillage, narrow 
spacing cuts maintenance costs. A plantage averages about 500 trees 
per tillage at 12 feet distance. Overcrowding i'S - 'eliminated by thin¬ 
ning out the least desirable trees. TCide spacing means a higher 
upkeep and a smaller production per area, although the former dif¬ 
ficulty is to a great extent obviated by the inter planting of "catch 
crops"". In East Java coffee (Robusta - coffee) is generally planted 
at the same time as Hovea. In ™est Java tea is the main catch-crop. 





Only about 20 percent of the total area given over to Hevea cultivation 
in the Netherlands East Indies is not interspersed with a catch-crop. 
Other possibilities are Tephrosia purpurea, Crotallaria striata, Mimosa 
invisa (which also provides free nitrogen fertilizer), Phaseolus 
lunatus and Passiflora foetida. The latter two plants have proved 
very successful as they not only cover the ground but tend to smother, 
weeds. 


Cultivation . Regardless of the material used, whether stumps 
or slips, Hevea is planted in holes about 1-g- to 2 feet square. , Stumps 
must be planted at the same depth from which they were removed from ^ 
the nursery beds. After the young trees are set out, proper mainte¬ 
nance is essential. Clean-weeding is preferable and proves cheapest 
in the long run. This however incurs the danger of the top soil 
washing away when it is bared to the rays of the tropical sun while 
the trees are young. By the fourth or fifth year the plantation will 
be roofed over and the cost of upkeep will drop. Sometimes only a 
ring around the trees is cleared and the rest of the weeds are scythed 
from time to time. This method offers less satisfactory results 
particularly where the "alang-alang" grass grows. In other cases the 
garden is mowed and the ground turned over. Again, this is imprac- - ' 
ticable if there is alang-alang around. 

Besides caring for the grounds, attention is paid to the young 
trees. Where stumps were planted, shoots soon appear. The strongest 
are kept and after awhile these grow with the trunks, giving a straight 
upright tree. Hevea grows upwards during the first year and only 
later do the trees put forth branches which are loped off up to a a 
height of fifteen to -sixteen feet. There is danger of crowns getting 
too heavy and the boughs breaking off when bared to the wind, with 
resulting harm to the tree. Therefore, the upper leaves are plucked 
from the branches. 

All branches on the lower 10 feet of the trunk are pruned. 

Great care is taken in pruning. Most of the branch is cut off and 
the stump is sawed off as flat as possible at the trunk of the tree. 

The wound is then shaved with a sharp knife and coated with tar. 

About 30 percent of all trees under cultivation in Netherlands 
India are bud grafted. ■ * « • 

Harvest 

Age of plant at first harvest . The Hevea brasiliensis is 
generally tapped when the circumference of the tree measures eighteen 
inches. This is usually around the fourth or fifth year. 





5 - 


■ Frequency and method of harvest . Successive daily tapping pro¬ 
duces more latex than does less frequent tapping, as Hovea reacts to 
wound irritations, Younger trees are not retapped on the same spot 
for two years nor older trees within four years, 

■ i * t * ■ * •* 

The most successful tapping is achieved by the "herring-bone” 
method or by the "half herring-bone," After the trunk has been cleaned, 
a -downward vertical channel, ending' in a metal spout, is cut. The 
sap runs do r n this incision to a bowl sot on the ground under the 
spout. Cuts at a 30° to 45° angle lead into this center cut. The 
side cuts are staggered alternately from the left or the right of the 
middle channel. Another system- is to join the side cuts in a V at 
the center incision. It has been observed that the left side pro- 
dunes more sap than the right, 

# 

Fhen tapping a tree daily it is customary to make two cuts on 
cither side, reaching about one quarter of tho way'around the tree, 
while the center cut reaches up to about three feet from the ground, 

Tho strips of bark removed from the tree arc made as thin as 
possible to avoid possible damage to the tree. Host profitable tap¬ 
ping results from a thickness of 1,25 mm - f hen rot tapping or 1,50 mm 
for dry tapping, depending on the experience of tho tappers. Each 
time the bark renews itself on the tree it is one to two millimeters 
thinner, 

• • , s . 

It is considered advisable to make all successive cuts the 
same length, and parallel to, the originals. 

Inexperienced tappers tend to damage the trees by removing 
bark of too great thickness, harming the cambium and baring the 
wood, or else they cut so shallowly that no latex flows from the 
wound, ; 

f 

Tapping should be done as early as possible in the morning, ex¬ 
cept during rain. The tapper, often aided by a lad, places the con¬ 
tainer under the spout and makes the incisions. In some instances 
the cut is dampened to increase the flow of sap, Fhen the flow of 
latex ceases the sap is poured from the container into enamelled pails, 
sometimes through a sieve to segregate coagulated rubber, which are 
transported on wheels to the factory. In hilly or terraced terrain 
transportation is more difficult. Closed, pails are used which are 
carried by pack animals, 

• 

Latex which coagulates on tho tree is collected for scrap 
- later in the afternoon or the following day. The shavings from the 
bark arc also salvaged to be worked into rubber as is the latex which 
fell to the ground and is collected as "earth rubber". 



- 6 - 




Equipment used . In Java the- so-called n pricker n .is..used. This 
is a small rod with sharp points which iabs the incision inciting a 
flow of sap without tearing the tree. 

The number and variety of tapping knives used in the Nether¬ 
lands Indies is legion and the number of new ones constantly being 
invented is even greater. Inasmuch as it is considered unwise to give 
the natives complicated mechanical instruments With screws, etc,, the 
knives must be simple to handle and easily honed. A simple gouge, or 
hollow chisel, about a half inch wide, is frequently used. A narrower, 
curved tool is used for the smaller trees, A very popular instrument 
is the sharp, curved M jcbong M knife. 

There is an equally largo variety of containers, or bowls, 
which are made of tin, pressed steel, aluminum, papier macho, etc., 
although recently, molded round glass bowls with conical bases have 
‘been widely used. These can be set right into the ground and havo 
the further advantage of being easily cleaned. 

Rates of accomplishment . A skilled tapper averages about 1000 
tappings a day depending, of course, on the number of trees in the area 
and'the number of previous cuts ; in the tree, 

' • f 

Primary Processing 

% 

Plantations at some distance from factories often have coagu¬ 
lation houses on the premises. The coagulated latex is then sent on 
to the factories for Further processing. 

In other cases the latex is transported directly to the factory 
where the sap is cleaned and all lumps removed. The cleansed latex 
is carefully filtered. First it is poured through a'coarse sieve of 
fine copper gauze, then through a finer mesh. From the sieve it flows 
bank to a basin along a slightly inclined runway. 

The latex is thinned r ’ith water unti] the rubber content ' 
reaches 15 percent.’ Acetic acid is added to force coagulation, and 
in some factories‘formic acid is used as a catalyst. 

Conditions affecting coagulation include; rubber content, 
temperature, movement of liquid, etc. 

To coagulate latex for the manufacture of sheet rubber, BO 
cubic centimeters of 1 percent acetic acid per liter of latex (thinned 
to 15 percent rubber content) arc added. The latex is coagulated in 
square flat pans and is briskly stirred while congealing. The coagu¬ 
lated rubber is removed from the pan, placed on a slanting table 
where it is'rolled out with a roller, or pressed in a mangle or a 
rotating machine with rollers working at equal speeds. Sometimes the 
sheets are finished in a press with spiral or other grooves ’.'hich 
imprints a pattern. Finally the finished, sheets are brushed off. 





- 7 - 


To make crepe rubber 16 c.c. of 5 percent acetic acid per liter 
of latex is added. A little less acid can be used if the rubber is 
not to be worked until the following day. To obtain a light colored 
crepe, one gram of natrium bisulfite is added to every liter of latex 
before the acetic acid .is poured in. Coagulation takes place in 
wooden or glazed earthenware bowls, or in "Shanghai jars." The coag¬ 
ulated pieces are taken out of the vats and run through a creping 
machine, which is a rotating machine with grooved rollers travelling 
at various speeds. The rubber is first pressed by a deeply grooved 
roller, then with a shallow grooved roller and finally by an un¬ 
grooved roller, while undergoing this process the sheets are thorough¬ 
ly washed off with water to eliminate the acetic acid. The resulting 
products are 2 millimeter-thick, rough-surfaced sheets of crepe rubber. 


Sheet rubber and crepe rubber are both dried in dark rooms 
usually at existing temperatures of around 30° C. Use of ventilators 
is considered, advisable. In some instances heated drying rooms at 
50° C, or heated vacuum dryers are used. In other instances the 
rubber may be smoked. In still other cases the latex is processed into 
block rubber. 


II. PRODUCTION 


Awe of Plant 


Rubber produced per tillage 1/ 


4 # 

% 

94 


*. 5k year; 

. 4 n 

■ 7 i' 

- ^ 

- % 

- 104 « 


265 - 350 lbs. 
400 - 500 « 

660 - 700 « 

825 - 360' « 
880 « 
880 » 


III. DEVIATIONS FROM OPTIMUM PHYSICAL.CONDITIONS 


Variations in soil and subsoi l 

Hevea brasiliensis may be grown in varied soils. It flourishes 
as well in sandy^soil-as in clay or loam. 


Variations in dreinage 


The trees will not grow as well in a water-logged subsoil. 
Otherwise, as a rule, no- drainage is undertaken as this is too costly. 

’ Direction of slope 

Slopes should not be bared to the wind because of the danger 
that the top-heavy boughs of young trees will break off. However, 
Hevea is grown on level ground insofar as possible. 

I'/Each bourr contains about 500 trees and covers an area of 1.75 acres. 












- 8 - 


Variation in rainfall 


Trees may not be tapped during rainfall. 


U nfavorable temperature 

Hevea grows best in a warm humid climate. Growth is retarded 
and tapping postponed as the temperatures drop below the optimum 80° F. 


IV. DISEASES 


Leaf diseases 


Plants in nursery beds are sometimes infected by a mold, 
H clmintho sporium Haveae Fetch , which causes little damage. Bouillie 
bordelaise is a good remedy for combatting this. Otherwise no 
noticeable disease has ever attacked the Hevea leaf in Java. 


' Root diseases 

According to Fetch, the Ceylon government mycologist, there 
are three root diseases which attack Hevea. These can be recognized 
after the tree has succumbed. 

, ; 1. When the dead roots are covered with white threads, some¬ 
times in the form of superficial white film, at other times 
as"thick white or yellowish cords, the tree has been in¬ 
fected by Fomcs semitostus. Berk . 

. 2, If the root is incrustcd by a mass of sand and gravel, held 
together by bro r *n or black ’’mycelium," then Hymonochastc 
noxia Berk , has boon at work. 

3. Finally, when the root is outwardly clean, although dead, 
and dark red or black strands appear between the wood and 
the bark of the root, the tree was infected by -Sphacrostilbc 
repons B. and Br . 

To prevent root diseases the stumps of forest trees must be dug 
out when clearing the land. 

When Fomes semitostus attacks a tree, the infection begins on 
a side root; the mycelium grows through to the peg root. rT hen this 
has been infected the leaves wither and the tree shortly falls down. 
Obviously, it is advisable to dig out such roots and burn them. In 
Sumatra the roots of young trees showing traces of this disease are 
bared and treated with "carbolineum." 
















- 9 - 


Trunk diseases 


Petch mentions certain trunk diseases of Kevea such as: "cancer", 
caused by Phytophthora Faberi i’aubl .; the "red sickness" from Corticium 
salmonicolor Bo and 3r T C. javanicum); "dieback" as a result of 
Botryodiplodia theobromae Pat .; a black cancer from a sort of Fusicladium . 
and finally a trunk cancer, accredited to Coniothyrium spec . Another 
harmful disease resembles "djamoer cepas" (or else identical rith this, 
and caused by Corticiun .javanicum ). 

f 

An infection caused by Ustulina zonata is feared as a serious 
disease. 

The cancer caused by Phytophthora Faberi .appears in tuo forms, 
i.e. as bark cancer, or as striped cancer. The first affects the 
trunk, generally near the ground, uhereas the latter infects the bark 
of the tapping surface. Even the fruit are infected (fruit rot). 

To avert cancer the same precautions arc taken as for any mold 
disease: drainage, working the soil, accessibility of light through 
thinning and pruning. Treatment v-ith a 5 percent carbolineum solution 
which can also be used as a prophylaxis, is recommended for both types 
of cancer, as well as for djamoer oepas. 

A comparatively rare phenomenon in young Hevea plantations is 
the fasciation of trunk and. branches; that is, some trees (according 
to Fetch about 1 in 10,000) have unusual malformations, in-which the 
extremities of trunk and branches are curved and flattened and re¬ 
semble a bishop's staff or crosier. 

Animal enemies 

White ants, rats and deer cause no little damage in young 
plantations. Trees also fall victim to borers. 














TABLE OF SOURCES '< 


"Dr, K, W, van Gorkom’s ’Oost-Indische Cultures,'" 
net: edition edited by Dr, H. C, Prinsen Geerligs, 

Vol, I, II, III, 

. ■ • v 7 

".Statistical Abstract of the Netherlands Indies, 1940" 
published by Department of Economic Affairs, 

Central Bureau of Statistics (Batavia) 

"De Landbouwexportgeuassen van Ncdcrlandsch-Indio in 1933" 
published by Department of Economic Affairs (Batavia) 

"1930 Handbook of the Netherlands East Indies" 
published by Department of Economic Affairs (Batavia) 

"Caoutchouc cn Getah Pcrtja," by Prof, Dr, P. van Romburgh 
"Oost-Indische Cultures," Vol. III. 






UNRESTRICTED 





BOARD OF ECONOMIC '"MOT-RE 
Office of Economic Warfare Analysis-* 
Far Eastern Division 





AGRICULTURE F[ THE T ~ETHERLA TT ^S I >T DIES ' 
2. Hard Fibers (Sisal and Heneouen) 


UNRESTRICTED 

Kay 7, 1942 


/ 


Msn»gr*pfc (Fnenwpfgfo) 
















■... 

■ 




















I. HARD FIBER PLANTS 


The Agave fourcroydes Lenaire (henequen) and the Agave 
sisalana Perrine (sisal) belong to the Amaryllidaceae family. 

The agava plants have practically no trunk; they have long roots; 
stiff,, fibrous, blue-green leaves, with smooth or thorny edges, 
and funnel-shaped flowers. 

Agave fourcroydes produces the true henequen and is also' 
called f, white sisal". The leaf is always sea-green (grav-blue), 
straight and stiff, and about 40 M - SO" long and approximately 
3" wide in the middle, tapering off to an inch-long thorn at 
the point. The leaf is edged with short curved thorns (3-4 mm). 

The peduncle is 13 to 25 feet high and has fairljr strong 
horizontal branches with thick clusters of flowers at the 
ends. These flowers form the seed pods. The base of the plant 
is only 20 to 60 inches tall and is 10 to 15 inches thick. 

Henequen grows only in a warm dry climate and requires loose, 
permeable, calcareous .ground. The life span of this plant ranges 
from ten to twenty-five years. Under good conditions the leaf 
yields 4-5 per cent clean dry fiber. Henequen is grown from 
suckers, bulbils, or seed. In practice only suckers are used. 

Agave sisalana (Syn. A. rigida sisalana) is'the green 
sisal. The leaf is dark green, or light sea-green, and is straight 
but less stiff than agave fourcroydes. It is 40" to 70 1r long'and 
3" to 5" wide in the middle, tapering off to a thin thorn, about 
an inch in length. There are generally no edge thorns; any that 
may exist are small and curved. The flower stalk is 13 to 25 
feet tall with slender branches. Blossoms are about two inches' 
long and form bulbils, but never seed pods. Sisal seldom develops 
a definite trunk. 

✓ 

Sisal grows best in a dry climate in permeable, lime soil. 
Sisal requires more space for cultivation than henequen. Favor¬ 
able conditions will produce a leaf having 3p- per cent of clean 
dry fiber, whiter and stronger than henequen. Propagation'is bv 
means of suckers or bulbils. Suckers are preferred although bul¬ 
bils are easier to transport. 

> 


II. CONDITIONS OF GROWTH AND- HARVESTING 


Soil 


A dry, sandy soil about 8 inches deep, in an arid, stony 
region is ideal for agava cultivation and produces the greatest 
fiber contenti The plant will grow in a richer soil but the 
fiber content of the leaves will diminish, Agava will also. ?row 
in poor soil but upkeep costs a^e higher. 

Subsoil 

A permeable5 calcareous subsoil with a limestone base is 
particularly suitable. 

Drainage 

The arid regions and the nature o^ the soil best suited 
to the cultivation of agava eliminate the'necessity o^ drainage. 
Subterranean water deposits must, however, bo avoided or drained. 

Direct?on of slope 


Agava grows best on level terrain as near as possible 
to sea level. 


Rainfall 

The least possible rainfall is desired as agavn leaves 
draw their essential moistire requirements from the air and 
the roots are extremely sensitive to heavy rains. The optimum 
desirable rainfall would not exceed 50 inches annually. 

' Temperature 

Optimum temperatures for agava cultivation range from' 

80° F to 97° F. A high relative humidity is essential prefer¬ 
ably 73 - 89 per cent RH. Agava will not flourish in shady 
regions as the loaves have a tendency to turn red when shadowed. 








- 3 - 


' Methods of Production 

Seeding . -’Agava' is' practically never grown from sood. 
Propagation takes place by means of bulbils or suckers. 

When bulbils reach a length o^ five to six inches they 
fall off the plant. These are then planted in nurseries 18" 
inches apart in rows of eight to ten inches. During the early 
days, plants are sprinkled when necessary. At the end of a 
year plants are about 18 inches tall and are'ready to be trans¬ 
planted. Nursery bods have a permeable soil, well cleared, 
and free of stones. Suckers are even better than bulbils. In 
its second or third year the agava plant outs out“Subterranean 
suckers which form individual plants about 35 to 40 inches 
from the mother plant from which they receive nourishment. 

Those are removed to protect the mother olant from loss, of’ 
nutrition, although one or two are generally left td.reolace 
the original olant should this die off. ^en the now olants 
arc about 20 inches high they are cut off and may be planted 
directly in the gardens. Scalier plants are first set out in' 
nursery beds, often remaining for as much as two years, before 
they can bo satisfactorily transplanted. 

Transplanting . Before being transplanted all roots are 
amputated and the young plant is left in the sun for about one 
month with the wounds upwards, causing them to heal more ouickly 
and alleviating chances of root diseases. Suckers are set out 
in nurseries 16 by 20 inches apart or 20 x 20 inches. Plants 
are taken to full ground when 16 to 18 inches tall. 

Spacing . Agava plantations are set out 4’ x 4 1 (5 f x 5 f ) 
or 3’ k 10’. . 

Maintenance. Pits should not be too big. These are gen¬ 
erally 20 inches-'’cep with a diameter of 10 inches. Plants ^rom 
nursery bods are set in the holes and supported by stones. 

Good maintenance and fertilizing are desirable although 
not essential. During the two years following transplanting 
there is nothing to be done except to keep the terrain cleared. 
Other crops are not interplanted among agava. 







- 4 - 


Harvest 

*• ' j 

Agava raised from seed cannot be harvested for ton years, 
while plants grown from bulbils are ready after seven-years and 
those originating from suckers are harvcstable at 5 or 6 years. 

In Java loaves are often cut after three or four years but' older 
olants produce longer fibers. Throe-year old plants give 3 to 
3 t per cent fiber, whereas six to seven-year old plants produce 
4 t to 4-g- per cent fiber. In practice the first cut is not made 
until lower leaves measure 20 inches and in Java only leaves 
standing out at a 45° angle from the heart arc taken* - In Ja^a, 
leaves measure 6 feet by the fourth year. Three or four harvests 
are made annually on each plant in Java, producing about 30 
leaves per plant. 

The dry season is the' best time for harvesting, but after 
a too prolonged drought the leaf becomes stiff and difficult to" 
defiberIntervals between cutting depend on the d.ogrce of ripe¬ 
ness of the loaves. 

Cuts are made with a’.small !, arit, M or grass-knife, as 
close as possible to the stem. The knife is pulled through from 
top to bottom of a loaf, after which any side thorns are removed. 
Badly damaged loaves arc left but those with an occasional spot 
arc taken. Crops are tied in bundles of 50 loaves. Harvesting 
continues until the death of the plant and in Java lasts over 
a period of about seven years. Women and children are frequently 
employed at this task. 


Primary Processing 

Inasmuch as agava leaves amount to over 05 per cent 
ballast, transportation must not bo over too groat distances; 
thus to minimize costs, factori.es are handy to plantations. ~ "Water 
must be available in-the vicinity; this'is in fact'a prime con¬ 
sideration. Loaves must bo processed immediately upon arrival~ " 
at the factory as discoloration will result after 24 hours which 
will not disappear through sun bleaching. 

1 * 

Extraction of fiber can be accomplished by various methods. 
Small plantations rot the loaves in still water leaving bacteria 
to develop and disolvc the binder. Once the fiber bundles are 
freed and softened the tissue is isolated. ‘Care must be taken to 
neither leave the loaves too long in the water, nor too short a 
time to permit proper processing. Leaves are bruised before' 
being placed in the water. Then pieces of limestone are placed 
in the pans to neutralize the acid content. 




The system of extracting fiber by hand produces the finest 
fibers. With simple and primitive equipment a man can extract 
about 6-9 pounds of hemp daily. 

Small manually operated defiboring machines are in general 
use, among others the "Dofibrcur-Duchcmin." The number of semi¬ 
automatic machines is legion. The small machine pith the single 
or double grater (raspador) is entirely satisfactory. A "ras¬ 
pador" consists of a drum about one foot long and 40 inches in 
diameter on vrhich there are a number of du 1 ! blades as ride as 
the axle. The drum, rests.in a frame attached to a moveable 
block in such a nay that the leaf is pressed against the fast' 
rotating drum. A leaf is inserted in the machine betueen block 
and drum, and is beaten to a pule by the knives. 

Automatic installations reauiro larger machines similar in 
construction to the "raspador." Among others are the "Prieto" 
and the "Ncu-Corona" (Pried Xrupp A.-G.). Fiber emitting'from 
the machines is unshod off or allowed to rot for 24,hours, then 
vrung out or the vatcr throun off by centrifugal force, after 
uhich the fiber is dried and bleached in the sun on bamboo frames. 
Sun drying is not always practicable for largo installations and 
artificial drying must be resorted to. 

Dried fibers are further processed a brushing'machine 
built on the principle of the "Raspador," uith stiff brushes in 
place of blades. A IP per cent loss results fr^m tMs orocoss 
and Philo manual processing diminishes the paste it is tmpco 
as costly. 

• * m m • • • 

' - x - l 

Cleaned fibers are crossed in bales of 440 to 550 pounds. 
Oil or tobacco presses are usod for this operation. Fibers arc 
laid straight and should never be bent or folded. Tobacco mats 
or gunny sacking are usod for tho trapping ^hich is secured br^ 
metal bands. 

Any enterprise producing over 200 tons of ‘fiber a year ^ill 
need automatic machinery. 

III. • PRODUCTION 


In Java tho agave produces about 1 - 1-r tons per "bouu" 
(tillage) l/ annually. Under particularly favorable conditions 
production may rise as high as 2 tons. Anproximatolv 2000 pounds 
of fiber per acre of 1000 plants ma’ r be expected annually, at max¬ 
imum production. 


T/T bouu = 1.75 acres 



- 6 - 


IV. EFFECTS OF DEVIATION FFIOF OPTIMUF CONDITIONS 

SOIL 

A richer soil will not detract from the growth of agava 
plants and while the fiber content shrinks appreciably 5n fertile 
soil, the increased quantity of loaf to some extent compensates 
for this loss in quality. .. 

Subsoil 

► > 

Agava grows unsatisfactorily in a oure sandy subsoil and 
equally badly in a pure loan subsoil. 

Drainage 

While the very nature of the.soil most suited to agava 
cultivation obviates the necessity for drainage, nevertheless 
stagnant subterranean water is extremely harmful as the roots 
cannot stand a largo amount of moisture. 


Rainfall 

- 1 ■ ■■ 1 ■ ■ — ——» 

Roots arc sensitive to heavy rains an' 1 succumb quickly. 

Temperature 

Temperatures in the Netherlands Indies never rise above 
the maximum temperature range for agava cultivation (97° F.) 
and the average temperature of about SO 0 F. prevalent in Java 
seldom varies to any groat degree. 

V. DISEASE 

i ’ ... 

Sickness and pests attacking agava plants are unknown 
in Java. Lightening causes damage, and spots on'leaves result 
from excessive, heat and dryness. The light rod color, sometimes 
noticed on agava leaves is believed due to insufficient drainage 
of the ground. 









TA3LE OF SOURCES 


/ 


"Dr. K. W. van Gorkom’s 1 Cost-Indischo Cultures,’" 
ncv* edition edited bv Dr. H. C. Prinsen Gocrligs 
Vol. I, II, III. 

, . M « 

"Statistical Abstract of the Netherlands Indies, 1040" 
published by Dcpartront of Econor.ic Affairs, 

Central Bureau of Statistics (Batavia) 

"Do Landbouvoxportgcuassen van Fedorlandsch-Indi6* in I 03 S” 
published by Department of Economic Affairs (Batavfa) 

”1930 Handbook of the Netherlands East Indies" 
published by Department of Economic Affairs (Bata.via) 


"Vezelstoffen," by Dr. J. J. Zoi.ilstra Fzn. 
"Oost-Indische Cultures," Vol. III. 



























* 






. 




. 


























































UNRESTRICTED 



U V ^ 4 BOARD 0? ECONOMIC WARFARE 
Office of Economic Warfare Anal 73 is 
Far Eastern Division 


IM-FE- n 



C] 


AGRICULTURE in THE NETHERLANDS INDIES 
3. Coconut pain ( Cocus Hue if ora ) 


UNRESTRICTED 


May 5, 1942 


IHnagrapli (Incempfata) 












I. CONDITIONS OP GROWTH AND HARVESTING 


Optimum physical and economic conditions under which 
the coconut palm (Cocus Nucifera L) grows in the Netherlands 
3ast Indies include: 


Soil 


A light, porous soil, covered with a good humus layer, 
is preferred for coconut cultivation. The sandy soil along 
the beaches is satisfactory. The vicinity of the sea has 
no detrimental effect on the growth of this plant. 

Subsoil 


The ideal subsoil for coconut palms is the loamy sand 
soil found in alluvial coastal regions. Equally satisfactory 
is old forest ground with sandy subsoil. The earth should 
be well drained. 

Drainage 

The coconut palm requires much water and from time 
to time the ground may be completely inundated provided it 
is sufficiently porous to drain rapidly, so that the roots 
will not be submerged for too long periods. 

Direction of slope 

Coconut trees grow best on the plains and the 
maximum elevation suitable for cultivation is approximately 
3000 feet. 


Rainfall 


The Cocus nucifera requires an abundance of rain. 
Minimum rainfall requirements are estimated at 79 inches. 

Tnere irrigation is available a lesser precipitation will 
suffice. The average annual rainfall of 71 inches for 3atavia 
is typical of all coastal regions in Java. Following are 
the precipitation averages at Batavia (sea level): 


Average annual precipitation 71" 

Number of rainy days annually 135 



> 


Seasonal distribution in inches 


May. June July Aug. Sept. 
14.4 10.7 7.3 S .6 12'.6 


Oct. Nov. 
17.2 17.6 


Dec. 
12.5 


Jan. 

16.3 


Feb. 

14.8 


Mar. 
15.5 


Aor. 

17.3 








2 


T omporature 

Thd coconut palm is a true tropical plant requiring 
an abundance of sunchine and warmth with the greatest possible 
even distribution. This palm grows more slowly in the in¬ 
terior and bears fruit less rapidly as the temperature drops 
with increased elevation. The boundary of fruitfulness is 
reached at 2600 - 3300 .feet. The optimum average temperature 
is 78° F to 79° F. 

Poliowing temperatures were measured at Batavia: 


Average 

annual 

73.6° F 

n 

maximum 

86.2° 

it 

minimum 

73° 

Absolute 

maximum 

96.4° 

it 

minimum 

64.9° 


Average annual sunshine at Batavia.: 48.6p> 

Average annual relative humidity at Batavia: 83 r * 

Metho d s of Production 

Cultivation of coconut trees is almost entirely in the 
hands of the natives. Two types of coconut cultivation exist 
in the archipelago; estate production and native cultivation. 

The latter tends to be rather haphazard and unscientific. It 
is easy for the native cultivator to obtain the? best seed as 
he can choose well ripened nuts and take the most developed, 
which is generally the lowest in a clump. These are hung on 
rafters in the home or on bars in sheds and left to sprout. 

It is, however, preferable to let the roots develop in their 
natural environment. The first leaf appears after three months, 
by which time the roots have pushed through the fibrous shell. 

At this stage the nuts can bo planted directly in the clearing 
chosen for the plantation but they are generally set out in 
nurseries where they are afforded protection from strong 
sunshine and wild pigs. Nine months later the young trees are 
planted in previously prepared holes. The tendency is to plant 
trees more closely than is advisable in order to obtain greater 
production per area despite all education along these lines. 

Estate production is undertaken on a more scientific 

basis: 

Seeding . It is more difficult to pick out the choicest 
seed in large scale cultivation, therefore seed is obtained' 
from regions known to give the best production. Nuts are planted 






- 3 - 


directly in nursery "beds. Suitable, well-drained ground near 
water is chosen. After the ground is weIT worked and cleared 
of weeds or rois, the nuts are placed in the ground, evenly 
spaced at 20 inches. The nuts are all laid in the sane direction, 
the length-wise axle lying horizontal, with the seed opening 
on top. The intervening spaces are filled with loose earth 
nixed with ash to prevent vermin. Cooking salt is sometimes 
used instead of ash; however, too much salt is harmful. 

Nursery beds require a great deal of attention. They 
must be watered regularly in the dry season and provision has 
to be made for shading the young plants from the direct rays 
of the sun. Shadowing is so arranged that the plants have 
been accustomed to the sun by the tine they are transplanted. 

It is essential that plants be well cleared to control vermin. 
Plots are forced in as protection aw?„inst outside enemies. 

About 30 percent more nuts are planted than required and those 
which have not sprouted, or which produce unsatisfactory plants 
are dispensed with. 

Transplanting . Transplanting is done at the beginning 
of the rainy season. The terrain to which young plants are 
moved must bo completely clea,red, with all tree stumps and roots 
dug up and destroyed. Holes dug for 1 to !§■ year old trees 
are forty inches long, wide, and deep. The developed roots 
can then spread out. The hole is lined with stable dung 
or vegetable humus mixed with the excavated top soil. 

Plants are Tilled out of beds with as much adhering 
soil as possible and removed carefully and rapidly to the chosen 
sites. The plants are placed in nits in the same position 
as they stood in nursery beds with the top of the nut just be¬ 
low the surface of the ground. Holes are filled in with the 
io^se ea.rth which is carefully pressed down. Unless it rains 
im isdiately the seedlings must be watered directly after trans¬ 
planting takes place. 

Plants left in nurseries provide material to replace 
trees failing to survive transplanting or showing unsatisfactory 
growth. • . 

Spacing . Coconut trees are planted in straight rows 
forming squares, or rhomboidally. The question of spacing is 
controversial, as a spacing of 23 feet provides double the 
quantity of trees planted at 33 feet. A distance of 23 feet 
apa.rt is too small as this dees not allow sufficient light and 
air for full grown trees. 




-4 - 


Cultivation . Native cultivation seldom includes any 
great naintenanco. As a rule, the.natives merely keep the reeds 
down. The habit of cutting foot treads in the trees, while 
inadvisable, is common-in native undertakings. 

In large-scale enterprises, while it is generally 
desirable to keep the ground around each tree well cleared, 
this is neither possible nor desired during the first years, 
as the unshadowed ground is too quickly dried out by the rays 
of the tropical sun. Later, as the palms spread out, their 
shadow helps keep the ground clean. Grazing cattle also help 
in keeping the ground cleared. 

The top layer of soil is loosened from tine to tine to 
permit infiltration of light and easing of gas rotation in 
the ground. 

The trees require a certain amount of maintenence;■ 
falling leaves and dried blossom sheaths must be removed and 
"air-roots" eliminated from the bulging lower trunk. Such 
refuse is removed from the plot and left to decompose for 
fertilizer. Decomposition of the cleared out plants provides 
a better fertilizer than when they are reduced to ash with 
a resulting loss of nitrogen. 

Harvesting 

Coconut trees bloom all year and, consequently, bear 
fruit at all times. The number of nuts on a cluster varies. 
Generally, the smaller the fruit the more there are on a 
bunch. An average of eight medium sized nuts to a cluster is 
not unusual. 

Natives, having but a few trees for their own use, 
harvest these at will. Those possessing larger plantations 
pluck the fruit every "Djoemaha.t Kliwon," i.e. every 35 days. 
Natives climb the trees with the aid of foot holds cut every 
foot and a half. The ripe coconuts are cut or twisted off 
and simply dropped to the ground. In Sumatra monkeys are 
tmined a.s coconut pickers". In Sumatra hired workers are 
paid one coconut per every completely picked tree. In Java the 
rate is two nuts to a tree. The larger plantations are 
harvested regularly every month or two months. The picking 
takes place in the same manner. 

Under normal conditions trees bear their first fruit 
in the seventh or eighth year, but a full harvest cannot bo 
counted on until the tenth to the fifteenth year. 






Primary P rocessing 


Copra . Preparation of copra is simple. Well-ripened 
nuts aro used and cars is taken in their preparation. Freshly 
plucked nuts are laid in the open air and sun to dry for a 
time, then the shells are pried open and the kernel cut in 
half. The milk is generally lost in this process. 

Although copra can he dried by artificial means, in 
Java it is usually sun dried. The nuts are spread out, with 
the open side up, in the full sunshine. During showers and at 
night boards on which the nuts are drying are rolled under a 
raised roof. Under a strong sun, drying takes about five days. 
Interruptions due to rain or other causes have a detrimental 
effect on the quality. 

3esides natural moisture, the inside of the kernel is 
wet from.coconut milk. Consequently the preliminary drying 
should be as rapid as possible. Inner moisture evaporates 
slowly and kernels are often damp when-the copra superficially 
aopears to be well dried. 

First quality copra is light in color, hard and solid. 

It should not mold, nor contain sand, earth or other impurities 

Although sun dried copra is preferred, kiln drying is 
used as an alternate method. This only requires 24 hours at 
70° C. However, kiln dried copra is darker and less valuable 
due to the smoky odor. 

In Java an average of 5000 coconuts are required to 
produce one ton of copra. 

Coconut o il and cake . Copra is sifted and cleaned of 
all impurities and dirt. It is then broken up, grated and 
finely ground. The meal is warmed up, moistened and pressed 
in hydraulic presses. The oil thus obtained is filtered and 
packed in containers. The pressed meal or cake is used as 
cattle feed. Comparative receipts are approximately 62 percent 
oil and 34 percent cake. 

Fiber . Fiber constitutes the third product of the 
coconut an d is used in the manufacture of ropes and mats. 

The fibrous shell is left to rot in stagnant or moving 
water, or it is buried in the ground. After about four months 
the material binding the fiber together disintegrates. Fiber 
is then beaten with a piece of wood, twisted or wrung by hand, 
and dried in the sun. 








- 6 - 


Longest fibers are used in the manufacture of brooms 
and brushes; shorter fibers are used to fill cushions or are 
worked into yarn or into a rope which is -mown for its lightness, 
strength and resistance to sea water. Mats are also manu¬ 
factured of coconut fiber. 

About 40 nuts are necessary to produce seven pounds 
of fiber. 

Dessicated Coconut . Grated coconut is pure white in 
color and is carefully prepared from divided coconut. 

After shelling and opening choice ripe nuts, the brown 
covering skin is removed and the kernel washed off, as the 
adhering milk turns the meat yellow. The pieces are ground by 
a disintegrator or by moans of grating, circular saws, and 
cutting machines. The grated coconut is dried in hot ovens 
and packed in tins. When mixed with water this product is 
similar in every respect to fresh grated coconut. 

About 6,700 nuts are necessary to manufacture one ton 
of dessicated coconut. 

II. PRODUCTION 

Coconut trees produce fruit after the seventh year 
but a regular harvest is not obtained until the tenth year; 
in some instances not until the fifteenth year. Maximum 
productivity is reached after the fifteenth year and remains 
fairly constant until the tree is seventy years old, after 
which time production gradually dwindles. The life span of 
a carefully tended tree is roughly estimated at one century. 

An ■’untended tree will barely yield 20 coconuts a year. 

In well maintained plantations trees will produce 50 to 60 
nuts annually and it is not unusual for trees in a carefully 
tended, well fertilized plot to yield around 80 to 100 coconuts. 
In particularly fertile districts a tree may produce as high 
as 150 nuts a year. 

At 50 coconuts per tree, spaced at 26 feet, production 
averages over 3000 nuts annually for the 64 trees per acre. 

At 44 trees per acre the yield is over 2000 coconuts. In the 
Netherlands Indies an average annual production is one ton of 
copra per plot.l/ 


i7 Figured at approximately 7800 coconuts from 156 trees 
per hectare. 





III. DEVIATIONS FROM OPTIMUM CONDITIONS 


Variations in soil and subsoil 

Heavy clay, marshy land and turf ground are unsuitable 
for coconut tree cultivation. Barren, arid, sandy beaches 
are equally unsatisfactory. 

Variations in drainage 

Blooded grounds will not affect trees but it is 
essential that the ground drain quickly and thoroughly. 

Variation of slooe 


Coconut pains thrive best on level ground and growth 
is unsatisfactory above a few hundred feet. 

Variation in rainfall 

Prolonged, severe droughts will prevent trees from 
bearing fruit for their duration. While the coconut trees 
bloom all year, blossoms appear at longer intervals during 
the East Monsoon than in the rainy season and trees put off 
blossoming entirely during protracted dry spells. 

Variation in temperature 

Being a true tropical tree the coconut palm becomes un¬ 
productive when the temperature drops more than a few degrees 
below the optimum. 

IV. ANIMAL PESTS AND DISEASES 

Much destruction in young plantations is caused by 
monkeys and wild pigs which root up the ground and eat young 
leaves. 


Coconut rats, a type of squirrel, eat the fruit on 
coconut trees. They nest in the crown of the pains and 
multiply rapidly. To prevent rats climbing the trees, brmd tin 
bands or collars are nailed around the lower trunk of trees; 
then the pests are cleared out of the pains. As they can jump 
great distances all nearby trees must bo cleared out in like 
manner. Poison is also effectively used. 

White ants also cause much damage by boring into the 
fibrous shell and eating away the fruit. To combat ants, trees 
a.re sprayed with carbon sulphur. 








- 8 - 


Most destructive of all arc the beetles, primarily the 
Ehynchophours. Although this beetle does no. damage when full 
grown, it lays its eggs in wounds in the pains and the larvae 
burrow doop into the leaf. The best preventative is to keep 
the palms undamaged as much as possible and to coat all wounds 
with co.al tar. 

The worst enemy of the coconut palm is Oryctes Rhinoceros. 
In nursery beds this beetle digs a channel in the ground until 
it reaches the sprouting plant. When attacking trees it burrows 
into the heart of the plant, starting where the palm joins 
the trunk, causing the palms to droop. The insects fly around 
at sunset and light on the trees v/he^e they settle down and dig 
in during the night. Remedial measures include: 

1. Seeking out and destroying beetles, larvae 
and eggs. 

2. Laying out artificial breeding places in 
which insects can be killed or burned every 
six weeks, 

3. Cleaning up all breeding places such as 
dead trees, monure heaps, rotten leaves, 
etc., where eggs can be laid. 

Coconut trees suffer little from sickness. The only 
disease prevalent in the Netherlands Sast Indies is a mold 
caused by Pestalozzia Palnarun Cooke. Tho best cure for this 
is "Bordeau Pap, 1 ' or cutting off and burning affected leaves. 


TABLE OE SOURCES 


"Dr. -K.W. van Gorkon*s 'Oost-Indische Cultares,'" 
n ev; edition edited by Dr. H.C. Prinsen Geerligs 
Vols.I, II, III. 

"Statistical Abstract of the Netherlands Indies, 1940" 
published by Department of Economic Affairs, Central 
Bureau of Statistics (Batavia). 

"De Landbouuexportgevrass on van Nederlandsch-Indie in 1938" 
published by Department of Economic Affairs (Batavia). 


" Oliegewassen" by Dr. J.J.A.Wijs, "Oost-Indische Cultures, 
Vol. II. 










































































- 



» 

































IM-F3-9 



, board OF ECONOMIC WARFARE 
Office of Economic Warfare Analysis 
Far Eastern Division 




AGRICULTURE IN THE NETHERLANDS INDIES 
4* Taoioca (Cassava) 


iii 


ay 26, 1942 


Octmp!*te) 




























/ • .< 


















. 

.• • 













5 

I. CONDITIONS OF GROWTH 


AND HARVESTING 


This study includes the two types of cassava generally 
cultivated in the N. E. I.: bitter cassava (Nanihot utilissima Pohl^ 
and sweet cassava (Manihot palmata Hueller). Cassava grows on all 
islands of the archipelago. In sawahs it is grown as a secondary 
crop and in non-inundated areas as a main cron. Cassava flourishes 
on the beaches or in the mountains (3000 feet). The olant belongs 
to the order of Tricoccae of the Eunhorbiaceae family and is t^e 
Manihoc type. 

Cassava is a nerennial shrub-like riant with thick, hard, 
turnip-shaped roots 15 to 20 inches long. The root is rich in 
starch and contains a milky poison which is eliminated by washing 
or heating. Propagation takes place by means of slips or cuttings. 

Cassava is grown under the following conditions in the 
archipelago: 


Soil 

" v 

Light, sandy soil is chosen. Ground must be nermeable, 
deeply tilled, and the earth loosened. Sand, mixed with loam 
and humus is a satisfactory soil. As cassava draws substantial 
cuantities of potash and phosphoric-acid out of the soil, suf¬ 
ficient fertilizer containing these elements must h e frequently 
applied. 


Subsoil 


Subsoil should be permeable as roots are sensitive to damo- 

ness. 


Drainage 


Soil must be well drained as roots ^ill not develop in ex' 
cessive moisture. 


Direction of Slone 


Cassava plants ~ive a better nrod.uction on level term- 
rain, but will grow at elevations up to 2,500 feet. 

Rainfall 

Precipitation measurements at Batavia and 3ardoeng are as 
follows: 

Batavia Bandoeng 

Average annual precipitation 


4 




71" 

number of rainy 135 
days 


77" 

U3 
















1 


n- • 


































- 2 - 


Temperature 

Cassava cultivation requires a ""arm, damp.climate to pro¬ 
duce the maximum starch content. Bulk development decreases in 
shady areas. Temperature readings are given for Batavia at sea 
level and Bandoeng at 2400 feet: 


• \ 

Batavia 

Bandoeng 

Average annual 

78.6° F 

71.7? F 

n maximum 

86.2° 

31.5° 

n minimum 

73° 

61.6? 

Absolute maximum 

96.4° 

93.6° 

,f minimum 

64.9° 

* 

52.2° 

Average annual sunshine 


63$ 

n ” rainfall 

83$ 

77/- 

Methods of Production 




.. \ 


Cultivation in Java is almost entirely confined to white 
cassava, the roots of which have a low prussic acid containing 
glucose content. 

Seeding. Planting is accomplished during'both East and 
West monsoons. Propagation is by means of slips, 8 Tf to 15” long 
with 2 or 3 "eyes”, cut or sawed from the.parent stem. Upper 
cuttings give ah inferior plant material. Slips should bo cut 
shortly before planting as they dry out ouickly. The cut edges 
are smoothed off. Cuttings are planted vertically, or at a 
slight incline, in rows running North-South in previously prepared 
and deeply tilled soil. Plants prefer a wo11 drained, loose earth* 
The end of the rainy season is preferred for planting- slips dir¬ 
ectly in the field. 

M * 

Spacing . In fertile ground plants are set out 4* x 3*‘ in- 
ayorage soil, at 3* x 3’; and in light soil at'2’ x 3’ or 2-y T x 2£-*. 

Cultivation . Two or throe slips aro often planted together. 
In a few months shoots appear and the whole field is soon covered. 
The ground is carefully weeded during the first period but once the 
ground is-shaded no other care is necessary than periodical hoeing 
botwcon the rows to looson tho soil. A small wooden plow is often 
employed for this operation. Plants are prevented from flowering 
by removing the flower buds. Occasional pruning of branches im¬ 
proves the growth of roots. 









Harvest 


The optimum harvesting period is not exactly defined. To 
a certain stage, the longer the roots remain in the ground the 
better they will develop. After a certain point the.starch con¬ 
tent starts to decrease. In level terrain the crop is harvested 
around eight or nine months after planting. Harvests are some- 
v/hat later in the. mountains. Roots are dug up or nulled up'by 
the 1* - l-j^’ stem remaining after the plant has been felled. Roots 

are cut off the.trunk and transported to the factories. 

' ’ •' » , - $ 

'Pr imarv Procc ss ing 

y * 

Vf 

Ganlek . This product is prepared in the N. E. I. from fresh 
cassava roots. Peeled and dried roots are quartered and each auar- 
tcr is cut into .three or four lengthwise pieces. These pieces 
are well washed and dried in the sun p or 5 to 6 days, after which 
the product is ready to bo exported as a "gaplok." If it is not 
well dried it will,mould quickly. 

■ ’a' 

Ganlek.is also produced in flake form; this, too, is washed 
in clean, running water,and dried in the sun. The drying process"' 
is important as fresh cassava roots contain 50 to 70 percent‘water, 
whereas the moisture content of good ganlek is around 15 percent. 
(Every two tons of fresh, pooled root ; will produce one ton of 
gaplck). 'V-> •• 

Ganlek Flour . To produce this product the. $«plek is finely 
ground to a meal; the quality of the gaplok used is of consider¬ 
able importance. Mouldy and dirty ganlek produces a dp-^k meal, 

while carefully prepared gaplek will give a white meal when milled. 

» 

Before 1927, only gaplok was exported and this was milled 
at its destination; since that time milling has boon done at the 
point of origin because: 

* 

* m 

1. Gaplok meal is loss voluminous than gaplok, 
thus lowering transportation costs: 

. . • • 

2. Gaplek can be milled more choapiv in Java, 

duo to low wages, thus reducing the price of the 
finished article in Europe and America. 






. - 4 * 


Tapioca Flour . In tho N. E. I. tapioca flour is scienti¬ 
fically prepared according to mostern methods, even in tho small¬ 
est enterprises, most of mhich are in the hands of the Chinese. 

\ * 

. * * * 

t. •• • 

Tapioca flour is prepared from: 

1. Fresh Cassava roots from plantations 

2. Fresh Cassava roots from native holdings 

3. Native meal delivered met to small factories 

4. Native meal, delivered dry to small factories 

5. Gaplck 

6. Gaplok meal 

Tapioca flour, prepared from selected roots (scientifi¬ 
cally prepared and rapidly transported to factories after har¬ 
vesting), is a fairly pure starch product.* Standards of duality 
are based on color, purity, viscosity and carak, i.c. bv ear. 

This product naturally brings a higher price. 

Tapioca flour, prepared from ro^ts purchased from native 
holdings is also a practically euro starch product, but of loss 
constant cualitv, due to: 

1. Variations in roots 

2. Irregular transportation (long -iraim out) 

3. Poor control during nrocossing 

• 

It is of .greatest importance that roots be morkod in a 
fresh state. Primary preparation for all roots, consists of’ 
cashing and grating the neelod or unpooled roots, After grating, 
the starch is thinned r/ith mater, sieved and sprinkled, and all 
impurities removed. The remaining mass is placed in settling 
pans and the mater allomod to run off, leavinm only flour after 
moisture.has evaporated. As the top and bottom of those pokes 
are the least pure, they are scraped.off. Tho cleaned flour cakes 
arc then mashed and stirred in stirring vats, after mhich they are 
again returned to tho sediment pans. The final operation is tho 
drying of the flour thus produced—either in the sun or arti¬ 
ficially. 

Tho met native meal is generally used by small buyers 
enterprises, mHo first dryvemi clean the meal and there sfcj.3? It as iapio 
flour under their trade names. Sometimes .this is bought up by 
large factories and purified and refined. Duo to the lapse of’ 
time during processing, this is Generally an unsatisfactory pro¬ 
duct of lorn quality and oach individual lot shoms great variations. 




• The dry native meal, which is; prepared and dried on the 
spot, -is bought by traders. Because 'of ’‘the" tft’imitiyo..prepara¬ 
tion and cleaning (consisting only of grinding arr* boiling), this 
product is of even lower quality than the grades listed above, 

'* ' •- , * ^ 

’The scientific preparation of tapioca flour from gaolck' 
is similar to th? methods used in preparing it ^ron fresh roots. 
There' is a reluctance to purchasing thi.s in the U. 3,, although 
when properly prepared it is similar in all details to tapioca 
flour prepared from fresh roots. Preparation takes dace as 
follows: Cells are opened by milling or grating the gaplek. 

The opened colls are washed and sifted to clean out the "annas.' 1 
Starch is derived b* r lotting the flour milk settle. 

Preparation of tapioca flour from gaplok meal is inad¬ 
visable as 'it is difficult to clean thoroughly. Particles of' 
fibrous waste and fine sand and clay pieces cannot bo avoided, 
even by careful sieving. The product.inevitably has a grayish 
color. 


Tapioca Flakes and Siftings . Preparation of flakes and 
siftings requires first quality factory flour. Tho (moist) 
tanioca flour is heated in pans until it adheres tn the metal." 
The mass,is, scraped loose until tho flour curdles and stiffens, 
at which point it is partially transparent. After tho product 
cools it is- sifted into flakes and siftings, 

' Tapi-oca Pearl and Seeds . This is also prepared from half- 
moist first quality tapioca flour. . Tho moist flour is pressed 
through a coarse sieve and placed in an open-end sack of twilled 
cloth, shaken hither and yon by two people, until.the movement 
results, according to length of time pursued, in small nr large 
balls.; When tho required size seeds or pearls is attained, the 
product is.sifted, after which tho moist seeds or pearls are 
heated'in an iron pen. When cooled and dried the ^ell-known 
pearls result’and are sifted to medium, small and seed pearlsi 
Rcccntljr a mechanical method has boon evolved for this process 
through the use of evenly heated, rotating drums. Caro is given 
•to keep tho desired color (white and opalescent) and to ensure 
that tho grains do not break in' cooking. 

Ampas . The ‘waste from tho preparation,,of flour is dried 
•and used in lump, fragment, or ground form, known as "ampas." 

-Ampas imported in England may not have a paw fiber content high¬ 
er than 8 percent. ..... . 





-.,6 


Uses of Cassava Products 

The different cassava products have various uses. As gap- 
lek and gaplck meal are practically the same thing they arc used 
for the same purposes. In cakes this is an important cattle fend, 
Gaplek is also used in industry for the preparation of industrial 
alcohol and glucose. Whore molasses is plentiful cassava is not 
used due to the higher production costs. 

Gaplek is also important as h^iman foodstuff, When rice is 
scarce and dear, gaplck is largely consumed. It cannot ho used 
as a primary foodstuff, hovcver, due to the lev albumen and fat 
content. 

• * *. * 

Tapioca flour also has various uses. Besides being*a food¬ 
stuff and the base of the finer tapioca products (pudding, ver¬ 
micelli, and biscuit) this flour is also used by the textile in¬ 
dustry as sizing for yarns and rroven goods, vhcre it is preferred 
to potato flour as tapioca docs not discolor tho yarn. Tapioca 
is employed in tho preparation of dextrine an* 3 glue as ^ell as in 
the manufacture of nitro-starch, v/hich is one of tho safest explo¬ 
sives, vidoly used in agriculture for blasting tree trunks, etc. 

II. PRODUCTION 

• • • 

There are an averare of five ro^ts to a Plant w ith"an aggro 
gate noight of 3 to 5 pounds. Production runs about 200-300 pi¬ 
culs per ■tillage”!/ although .judiciously selected stock may pro¬ 
duce up to 500 piculs per "tillage”. Cassava is intorolantod 
with maize, millet, tobacco, etc. 

Crop rotation is essential to tho maintenance of a fertile 
soil. Fertilization alone is insufficient as the cassavaroots 
drau strongly upon the soil and 3 or 4 successive plantings of 
cassava will render tho soil unfruitful. Before any measure of 
success can bo guaranteed for a replanting of cassava intensive 
fertilization must be undertaken. 

III. DEVIATIONS FRCP 0PTBTJN PHYSICAL CONDITIONS 

Observed variations 5n optimum conditions ^nr cassava 
cultivation have-disclosed that the'root development is retarded 
and considerably lessened in ground containing excessive moisture. 

It is also,noted that all efforts to acclimate cassava to 


1/ Tillage » boun of 1,-75 acres. 




- 7 - 


areas outside the sub-tropics have been unsuccessful. The plant 
is extremely sensitive to night frost. 

IV. DISEASES AMD PESTS 

Rats or mice dig up the -'“round to roach roots, which they 
devour. Considerable damage is caused by wild pigs, 

f , » 

The greatest enemy of the cassava olaht is an insect: the 
cassava mite, Tetranychus birac.ulatus Harv., which belongs to the 
Acarinao group and resembles a rod spider: the tea mite. - The 
cassava mite is distinguished from this Tetranychus mainly bv the 
eggs, which are grey instead of red.' The only method of combatt¬ 
ing this plague is to fell the trees, or to pluck off infected 
leaves. When trees are felled, the garden must ho thoroughly 
cleaned and weeded and the felled trunks burned. Early morning" 
is' the best time for this, as the mites remain dormant and there 
is less danger of them jumpin'- to uncontaninatod trees. This 
foiling is of no avail after the plants are seven months old. 

Plucking off the leaves sometimes helps avert this blight, 
but only in those instances when the mite appears oh small areas. 
Development of the roots an^ the ouality both suffer from this 
operation, but it is better to pick off the leaves than to lot 
the mite flourish and kill the plant outright. 

The rite spreads by crawling along the mound and climbing 
tree trunks. The wind, -too, assists in the spread of this nui¬ 
sance by blowing the eggs to uninfected plants• Sometimes the mite 
is carried on the clothing of laborers. 

Certain typos of lady bugs and one other type of mite are" 
the natural enemies of this mite. These are-, however, not strong 
' enough to successfully combat this mite. Insecticides arc also 
used but the high price of these sprays prohibit any large scale 
use. Surveys of the situation in Africa* the West Indies, and 
Reunion show a preference for bitter cassava which is more re¬ 
sistant to this post and therefore practically immune from it. 

In plantations in rolling terrain, particularly on the" 
slopes near Kodiri, some damage is caused'by the larvae of two 
typos of beetles: Loucophblis rorida Fa., an' 5 Lepidiota stigma 
Fab. The former is the more dangerous of the two and when it 
attacks plants to any'.great extent the loaves fall off and the 
plant shortly gives no further production. ' This post is fought 
by plowing up the ground to bring full grown beetles to the"sur¬ 
face, whereupon, they are. destroyed. .Poison-has boon used but'to* 
no avail. Spraying with carbon bi-sulphitc is the best antidote. 

Other animal posts include a beetle: Fonolepta quadri- 
punctata F., which damages the loaves and leaf-stalks of the plants 



-1 - 


a typo of Lytta which cats leaves; an arrow-tailed noth, whose 
caterpillars cause considerable damage; and three types of lice: 
Pinnasois, Locnniur, and Alourodcs. 

Cassava suffers but little from diseases other than those 
caused by insects. About the only wi^o spread.disease is root- 
rot, from which sick plants die off, although they later form 
now roots and stalks and'continue to grow. Rotting begins at the 
points of roots, which turn a violet color. This is more'notice¬ 
able in terra.in where cassava has long been in or eduction, and 
is loss apparent in old coffee grounds where cassava has been 
planted. The roct-rot is apparently caused b^ bacteria and 
there is no known cure. 



TABLE OF SOURCES 


"Dr. K. W. van Gorkords ’Oost-Indische Cultures,’" 
now edition edited by Dr, H. C, Prinson Goorligs 
Vol, I, II, III. 

"Statistical Abstract of the Netherlands Indies, 1940" 
published by Dopartnont of Economic Affairs, 

Central Bureau of Statistics (Batavia) 

4 . • • 

"Do Landbouwoxportgewasson van Noderlandsch-Indio in 1^3 
published by Department of Economic Affairs (Batavia) 

”1930 Handbook of the Netherlands East Indies" 
published by Department of Economic Affairs (Batavia) 

M Knol-cn Wortol'gcwasson," by J. J. Paerols 
"Oost-Indischc Cultures," Vol, II. 

"Do Norold-Situatie van Cassava in verband met don 
Nedorlandsch-Indischcn exoort van do product," 
published by Department of Economic Affairs (Batavia, 193#) 



IM -FE-15 

<L f 3n5 
0 



> BOARD OR ECONOMIC WARFARE 
Office of Economic Warfare Analysis 
Far Eastern Division 


AGRICULTURE IN THE NETHERLANDS INDIES 


5. Cinchona 


April 23, 1942 




(Inctmpktt) 
























































' 


























■s 


CONDITIONS OF GROV7TE AND HARVESTING 


The plant under sonsideration is Cinchona calisaya. The two 
types discussed are Cinchona Ledgeriana and Cinchona succirubra , as 
Cinchona officinalis is no longer planted in Java. 


Optimum physical and economic conditions under which Cinchona 
is grown in Java include: 


Soil 

An analysis was made of the composition of the soil to a 
depth of eight inches. Tests were made on earth dried at 105° C. 
Comparison was made with soil taken from a plantation under cul¬ 
tivation for forty years, from a newly cleared level ground plot 
and from a newly cleared plot in rolling terrain. Results proved 
that long cultivated land is not inferior to virgin soil. The 
air-dry soil of the 40 year old plantation was lighter in color 
than that of recently cleared areas, which were practically identical. 

Following are the results of the analyses: 


: : Newly Cleared Terrain _ 

:C-arden 40 yrs, old : Flat land ; Rolling Terrain 


Loosely hound water 

15.58$ 

11.41$ 

11.54$ 

Heat loss 

25.01 

21 .S 2 

21.61 

Chemically hound water 

8.43 

5.44 

3.21 

Or ganic Mat e rial(humus) 

16.60 

16.40 

18.40 

Nitrogen 

0.83 

0.82 

0.92 

Nitric acid extract 

Chlorine (Cl) 

traces 

traces 

traces 

Phosphoric acid (P 2 O 5 ) 

0.47 

0.35 

0.39 

Salto-acid extract 

(Kiezelzuur) (SiOg) 

0.11 

0.21 

0.18 

Sulfuric acid (SO 3 ) 

0.03 

C.ll 

0.07 

Potash (KoO) 

0.06 

0.05 

0.05 

Lime (CaO) 

0.54 

0.53 

0.61 

Magnesia (MgO) 

0.28 

0.32 

0.31 

Mangan oxide (MnO) 

0.44 

0.20 

0.22 

Phosphoric acid (F 2 O 5 ) 

0.07 

0.05 

0.04 

Iron oxide (Fe 203 ) 

2.15 

2.41 

2.57 

Aluminum oxide (AlpO^) 

Cj O 

6.42 

7.02 

7.03 








- 3 _ 


Subsoil 


Analyses < 

of Subsoil - 

Dried at 105° 

C 


» t \ 


: Newly Cleared 

Terrain 

: Garden 

40 yrs. old 

: Flat land : 

Rolling Terrain 

Loosely bound water 

21.23$ 

22>51# 


21.84$ 

Heat loss 

25.75 

28.30 


27.22 

Chemically bound water 

10.53 

12.50 


13.22 

Organic Material (humus) 

15.20 

15.80 


14.00 

Nitrogen 

0.76 

0.7S 


. 0.70 

Nitric-acid extract 
Chlorine (Cl) 

traces 

traces 


traces 

Phosphoric acid (P 2 O 5 ) 

0.36 

0.39 


0.40 

Salto-acid extract 
Silicon dioxide (SiOg) 

0.17 . 

0.15 


0.12 

Sulpher Trioxide (SO 3 ) 

0.01 

0.05 


0.03 

Fotassium oxide (K 20 T 

0.05 

0.03 . 


0.04 

Calcium oxide (CaO) 

0.47 

0.18 


0.19 

Magnesium oxide (MgO) 

0.09 

0.07 


0.05 

Ivlanganese oxide (MnO) 

C.58 

0.39 • 


0.40 

Phosphoric acid (P 9 O 5 ) 

0.03 

0.03 


0.02 

Iron oxide (Pe^OO^ 

0.93 

0.83 


0.73 

Aluminum oxide (AI 2 O 3 ) 

6.54 

5.23 


6.22 


Drainage 


Artificial drainage is generally out of the question as it is 
too expensive. Natural drainage is achieved through the usual choice 
of terraced, hilly terrain. Sites are chosen where the subsoil is 
transmittable. Absolutely level terraces assure proper drainage. 

Direction of Slope 

% 

Choice of locality is determined by wind direction, as North 
and Southwest winds can cause great damage, pud terrain bared to 
the wind-is unsuitable. 


Rainfall 

Precipitation measured cat Buitenzorg 873 feet above 
see level: 

1 . Amount - average annual precipitation: 168.4 inches; 
absolute daily maximum: 5.5 inches; average number of 
rainy daya annually; 238. 

5. Seasonal Distribution: (In inches) 


1 / Rainf al 1 incre as e s with elevation. 
















- 3 - 


Jan; Feb: Mar: Aor; May: June: July; Aug; Scot: Oct: Nov: Dec: 

16.3 14.8 16.5 17.8 14.4 10.7 7.3 9.6 12.6 17.2 17.6 12.5 

Temperature 

Temperature measured at Bandoeng^ 2,346 feet above sea level: 

1. Night : No great variation. 

i Average annual temperature: 71.7°F; absolute maximum: 
93.6°F; absolute minimum: 52.2°F; average maximum: 81.5°F; 

, average minimum: 61.6°F. 

3. oason al ran g e : There is little seasonal variation in tem¬ 

perature. Temperatures at elevations of quinine plantations 
arc approximately 68°F. at 4,000 feet and 60°F. at 6,000 feet. 

Methods of Production 


Choice of location . As climates suitable for Cinchona 
cultivation arc found only in mountainous regions, generally only 
rising terrain is available. Best elevations for Cinchona cul¬ 
tivation lie between 4000 feet and 6,600 feet above sea level. 

It is not desirable to go.above or below these elevations. 
Cinchona Ledgeriana grows favorably at first below 4,000 feet 
but sickness affects the trees around 8 or 10 years of age, 
causing them to die off, whereas, at 5,000 feet to 6,000 feet, 
trees 15 to 20 years old yield a regular production. Above 
6,600 feet growth is slow and retarded. The growth of Cinchona 
succirubra is extraordinarily slow at 6,600 feet. 

It is inadvisable to plant too high because of the hazard 
of frost which freezes the bark loose. Chances of frost are 
greater in flat regions. For this reason hilly terrain, if not 
too stoop, offers the most advantageous choice and also obx’iates 
danger of bad water in the subsoil, for roots lying in cold 
damp soil die off. 


So far as possible, terrain with long, broad shelves is 
chosen and narrow ridges are avoided, as the ground of the latter 
is less valuable. Land covered with primeval forests is pre¬ 
ferred, providing the subsoil is transmittable and no one type 
of tree predominates, indicating that the soil is suitable for 
that type only. Under these conditions the same crop can 
normally be planted three or four times if the ground is properly 
irrigated and provided with some fertilization. 

The chemical and physical composition of the soil is an 
important factor to the growth of Cinchona, as is the availability 
of water from springs or rivers for watering the nurseries. 


2/ Temperature falls l^F, every 328 feet of ascent. 









- 4 - 


• Preparation of terrain . It is essential to clear the land 
entirely. However, the entire area should not be burned as this 
leaves' too much ash, making the ground unfruitful for years. 

Terracing provides the best ground for Cinchona cultivation 
as it gives the trees more access to the air while retaining the 
same area under cultivation. Terraces must, however, be absolutely 
level to ensure proper drainage. Levelling prevents the Tipper soil 
from washing away but during this operation care should be taken to 
avoid a residue of unfruitful subsoil. To eliminate washing away 
of top soil, narrow ditches or curb‘pits are dug. Terraces should 
be of equal width, but unnecessary depth or baring the subsoil 
must be avoided. 

Roads are laid out preliminary to felling the trees. Care 
is taken in laying out the roads which generally have not more 
than a 5° rise (or about 1 to 12). They should not be too small, 
usually about eight feet for the largest and about five feet for 
the smallest. The felled trees are laid in the direction of the 
slope and"are left to rot, thus providing essential fertilizer. 

A small number are burned for ash. 

Once terraced, the sites are chosen and marked with sticks. 
Absolute uniformity is impossible due to the unevenness of the 
terraces and the presence of stumps left by the original clearing. 
Some ground is naturally prepared to receive the trees, which 
eliminates the necessity of digging pits. However, if the sub¬ 
soil is unsatisfactory pits are essential and are usually dug to 
a length, depth, and breadth of about two feet. Pits are best 
dug during the dry monsoon and refilled in October. Leaving them 
open a few months permits air to reach the soil. 

Seeding . There arc about 3,500,000 seeds in 2.2 pounds of 
Cinchona Ledgeriana and 9,000,000 seeds in 2.2 pounds of Cinchona 
succirubra. A good lodger blooms fairly late in life, sometimes 
only after twenty years, and only once a year, whereas the 
succirubra blooms all year. As a general rule the less valuable 
types bloom younger. 


Individual blossoms ripen at different times over a two 
week interval 5 consequently some will burst before others are ripe. 
Therefore, in harvesting the seed, a whole cluster is cut off as 
soon as any fruit springs open. It is left to ripen in the wind 
but sheltered from the direct sun rays. 

Cinchona seeds can be kept for long periods if they are 
entirely ripe, dried in the wind, well cleaned, and stored in 
tightly sealed iars in a dark place. Nevertheless, the sooner they 
are sown after harvesting tho better they will germinate. Ex¬ 
periments proved that indoor cultivation was unnecessary and 
seeding is now done in the open air in covered beds. 




Seed 'beds are 32 inches wide and -are roofed with palm 
leaves. Wooden bars (thin steins of Cinchona or other trees) are 
laid along heds and held by sticks of wood. Soil is removed from 
beds to a depth of 1 to 1 l/3 feet and is prepared "by removing 
insect larvae, rotten wood and all other matter harmful to the 
seed. The soil is then returned to the beds and covered with 
about an inch of vegetable humus. The bed is roofed with thatched 
palm leaves, raised about four feet in front and about one foot above 
the ground in back. 

After the humus.layer is well moistened about .45 to 60 
grains of seed to ten square feet are sown as evenly as possible 
by hand. The front of the bed is protected by a 3 foot woven bam¬ 
boo screen. 

Seed is then sprinkled lightly (water falling with any 
force will wash seed from its place.) Seed beds are best planted 
at the beginning of the year in order to take advantage of the 
following West Monsoon, or rainy season. Watering should be done 
once a day, preferably in the morning. Care should be exercised 
in watering, as too much moisture is as harmful as too little, 
particularly when the seed swells and starts to germinate, for 
there is danger of mould at this time. 

When the seed germinates, usually a month later, the bamboo 
screen is removed during the day, although replaced during the night 
to keep animals away. Light is essential to plants after sprouting 
and it also minimizes danger of mould. 

After six months (sometimes earlier, depending on the 
elevation) the most developed plants are transplanted. 

Secondary seed beds. Terrain as flat as possible, prefer¬ 
ably near water, is prepared for the seedlings. Rolling terrain is i 
laid out in terrenes. The ground is worked to a depth of two feet, 
cleared of wood and roots, and covered with an inch or so of 
vegetable humus. Forked sticks about feet in length are sunk 
six to ten inches into the ground and slats are laid in 13 to 15 inch 
squares through the forks to form a frame which is covered with 
leaves. This cover is raised about 5 inches above the beds and 
lets in sufficient light and air while shielding the plants from 
the full force of the rain. This frame can be removed for sprink¬ 
ling during dry spells. During the first days of transplanting it 
is even advisable to protect the sides of beds from direct sunlight. 

Seedlings are placed about two inches apart in "advanced 
seed beds" and as plants crowd each other, the smallest are removed 
until those left have double the originally allotted space. Weaker 
plants removed in the thinning out process, are planted in nursery 
beds about four inches apart. These nursery beds are laid out in 
the same manner as the secondary seed beds but the frame is raised 
higher from the ground. 





- 6 - 


The plants which arc left behind in the seed beds can bo 
covered with the leaf-covered franc, when it is discarded from the 
advanced beds, instead of the slanting roof. Thus, even weak plants 
will tend to flourish and even ungerminated seed will sprout. 

This is best done towards the end of the west monsoon when showers 
arc light, so that the loft-behind plants will be ready for trans¬ 
planting directly to nursery beds by the next west frionsoon. 

The above outlined procedure of seeding and transplanting 
will result in well-developed, woody plant material within one 
and a half to two years at an elevation of 6,000 to 7,000 feet; 
oven before 1-J* years at lower elevations. 

Planting in full ground . The best time for planting in 
full ground is at the beginning of the rainy monsoon. Plants 
which grow little or none in the nursery then get their first "shot” 
from the rains in full ground rather than in the nursery. Trans¬ 
planting is best done in the early morning but should never be 
undertaken in the pouring rain. 

i 

Pits arc dug a month beforehand, then refilled and marked. 
Damage to the roots during transplanting should be avoided. 

However, if any harm is inflicted, roots should bo amputated with 
a sharp knife. Attention should be paid to placing the roots in 
the proper direction. They should never be bent, nor should they 
be planted so deeply that the roots are smothered, or so shallowly 
that they arc light struck. Trunks should be planted as truly 
vertically as possible. Tops oi 1 trees can bo trimmed in tho nursery 
before transplanting and only good woody trunks arc selected. 

Sick plants and bastards should be loft in the nurseries 
as they can bo used thp next year for grafting. These arc never 
transplanted with healthy trees. 

Spacing . The question of spacing is controversial but 
the generally accepted rule is to plant Cinchona Ledgeriana at 
distances of 3’ x 3’ and to space Cinchona succirubra 4’ x 4’. 
Preliminary spacing hinges to a groat extent on the later handling 
of the plantation. One objection to close planting is that 
crowding may force the premature removal of young plants with an 
ensuing low production. Slips are also planted 3’ x’3 1 . Close 
planting is desirable in that a well-shadowed ground reduces 
upkeep costs, and the Ilelopqltis insect disappears by itself when 
deprived of the sun’s rays, thus obviating constant spraying. 

Greater production results from 3 1 x 3' spacing at 5,000 
to 6,000 foot above sea level; for instance a government plantation 
planted in 1904 at 3 l x 3* gave a cumulative total over a period 
of seven years of 344*71 kg of Quinine Sulphate whereas a planting 
of 3’ x 4' gave 243.54 kg and a 4* x 4’ plantation gave 201,72 of 
Quinine Sulphate. 




7 


Cultivation . Gardens should be well cared for and the ground 
kept cleared for the first two or three years, until a roof of 
leaves shades the ground, retarding growth of under brush. 

The ground is not hoed after planting until six months have 
elapsed, and then hoeing should not come too close to the trees. 
Ground around the trees is loosened periodically to permit infil¬ 
tration of air; this is done by raking and by digging narrow 
trenches. 


Grafting. Grafting is essential to the preservation of the 
pure botanical strain, due to the great variation in seeds from 
even the most perfect trees. Artificial propagation is achieved 
by moans of slips or cuttings as well as by grafting. The preferred 
method is grafting of Cinchona Ledgeriana onto trunks of Cinchona 
succirubra. Grafts are growing branches about four inches long and 
about the thickness of a pencil. A alanting cut, as flat as pos¬ 
sible, is made with a sharp knife about half the length of a branch. 
The trunk of the succirubra is slit about two to three inches 
above ground. This must be a perfectly flat cut, slanting inwards 
from above, no deeper than l/3 the thickness of the trunk. The 
incision must be the same length as the wedge shaped cut of the 
graft, and slips must fit incisions exactly. The cut side of a 
graft is laid against the wound in the tree. The tree is then 
bound with soft, non-cuttin, string and sealed with grafting wax. 
Precautions are token to avoid damaging the cambium. To insure a 
flow of sap to the graft, a semi-circular incision is made about 
four fingers above the graft. 

The purpose of grafting is to obtain trees whose quinine 
content is known, as well as to obtain the strength of a hardy 
succirubra combined with the superior quality of a Ledgeriana. 
However, up to a certain age, pure Ledgeriana trees are known to 
give more sulphuric-acid quinine than do grafts on succirubra trunks. 
The alcaloid content of bark changes through the character of the 
succirubra with a resulting decreased quinine content and increased 
cinchonidine. 

A SO to 100 per cent success can be counted on in grafting 
provided grafts are well cared for in the nurseries. Formerly 
grafting took place in gardens, but experiments proved that the 
operation is cheaper, and better control can be exercised, when 
grafting is done in nurseries. 

Except for a few dry months in Java, grafting takes place 
throughout the year. 

Grafting wax is made by melting eight parts of rosin and 
one part of beef fat- over a low fire. When cooked this mixture is 
stirred and poured into a pan of water, and then worked by hand 
until malleable. When the color becomes a yellowish white, the 
wax is made into cakes and immersed in cold water. Grafting wax 




- 8 - 

should be kept in the shade. When required for sealing grafts, 
these cakes are melted in a copper pan. 

Pruning . Cinchona Ledgeriana trees roquire pruning , as a 
plantation is well roofed after three years and the second ceiling, 
formed by lower branches, must be removed. At most, only the two 
lowest branches are cut during the first pruning which lets more 
light into the gardens. A first harvest of bark may be obtained 
in this manner. 

Fertilizing . Due to its high nitrogen content, oil cake 
made from castor oil beans is the best fertilizer. After fertilizing, 
yellowness disappears and the plantation become a verdant green. 

Two year old gardens require 2 ounces, three to four yfear old 
plantations need 3-4 ounces, and older ones up to 1 pound per 
tree. 


Harvesting 

In an average plantation the three-year-old trees are 
pruned for the first crop. After the fourth year the trees are 
again pruned and a few trees are hewn where they are crowded to¬ 
gether. Inthe following years less bark is obtained by loping 
off the lower branches and more by thinning out the trees, until 
no more is obtained from pruning and production is solely from 
felling. Generally branches more than six feet above the ground 
are not removed, as trees pruned too high do not regain a good 
crown which is essential to a well shadowed ground. 

The latest method of harvesting is to always leave,some 
trees as cover which effects a saving on soil preparation and 
ground clearing. This also maintains a supply which can be tapped 
during boom periods. 

At six years of age the trees reach their maximum quinine 
content. The quinine content decreases to the twelfth year and 
then remains constant. After six years the quantity of bark 
increases but it is practically impossible to determine when the 
maximum quantity is reached. 

Whether or not an area should be replanted with the same 
type of Cinchona tree depends on the soil. This is generally not 
advisable. 


As time passes sick trees appear; these are dug up and 
the resulting excavations are filled with Ledgeriana-grafted 
succirubra or hybrid trees. Holes are never left in the plantations 
as they encourage the other trees to sicken. This thinning but 
gives the older trees a chance to develop well and form greater 
quantities of bark. 





-9- 


In harvesting it is necessary to differentiate between 
bark for quinine extraction and pharmaceutical bark. The value 
of the latter is greater if the periderma is undamaged and 
adhering moss is left on the bark. 

Bark for quinine extraction nay not be cut, but should 
be pounded loose from the trunk with a wooden hammer and peeled 
off with a horn knife. Use of steel knives is not^permitted 
as pieces of wood may thereby be removed with the bark. The 
periderma is removed from the bark by beating with a wooden 
hammer^ later the bark is brushed off. The bark is then 
divided in long or short strips with a knife and peeled off 
the stem. This bark is known to the trade as Cortex Cinchonae 
Sine Epiderna. 

The beating and peeling are done by women, while men 
laborers fell or dig up the trees. 

Pharmaceutical bark is harvested differently. A ring of 
bark is removed from the base and the tree is felled. Bark 
is removed in strips 3 - 3jy feet long which are allowed to roll 
up into long cylinders. 

Primary Processing 

The freshly cut strips of Cinchona succirubra are laid 
in the shade for a few days and left to curl. They are wound 
with bamboo rope, and a stick to hold them straight is inserted 
through the cylinder. Next, the strips are laid in the sun, 
the stick removed, and the bark left to dry in the open air. 
Prying naturally in open air preserves the silvery white appear¬ 
ance which is so desired in pharmaceutical bark. This is not 
always possible during- large harvests as the sun does not shine 
very much during the west monsoon, which is the most favorable 
period for harvesting this product. Paring the east (or dry) 
monsoon the periderma is loosened from the bark, reducing the 
value of the bark. 

Bark which cannot be cut into the specified cylinder 
lengths is harvested as "broken pipe." What cannot be gathered 
as y broken pipe" is packed in bales as dust. 

Root bark of the pharmaceutical product is also boxed in 
pieces. If water is available it is preferable to wash off root 
bark to eliminate sand. 

Bark is graded before packing to assure regularity of 
specimens. Bark from sick trees is packed separately as this 
is of lesser quality. 

Tests made at different seasons proved that the variation 
in quinine content is negligible. Consequently bark can be 
harvested all year in Je.va. 




- 10 - 


Fresh, newly peeled bark contains about 70 - 75 percent 
of the weight in water. About 60 - 65 percent of this moisture 
is eliminated by open air drying and the 10 - 13 percent remain¬ 
ing is dried out at 125° C. 

Finally the bark is dried in a hot air machine at 100° C. 
Bark which is processed directly in the machine without previous 
open air drying gives a less valuable, strongly colored product. 

While drying in the sun, bark is spread out in pans laid 
across rails. These pans can be covered at night or during rain. 
Careful drying prevents moulding after packaging which would 
reduce the value of the bark. 

Appearance is discounted by the quinine factories, whose 
only interest is in bark from which a high quinine content can 
be easily extracted. This bark is ground to a powder and packed 
in jute sacks of about 220 pounds. 

According to their contents, packages of Cinchona succirubra, 
which is packed in cases, weigh 130 to 200 pounds. 

II. PRODUCTION 

There arc approximately 40,000 acres of Cinchona trees under 
cultivation in Java. Annual production is about 10,000 tons of 
bark with a quinine content cf about 600 tons. 

A first harvest is gathered by pruning the lower branches 
after which harvests are made by felling trees during the process 
of thinning out the plantation. Quinine content of the bark in¬ 
creases ' steadily to the sixth year after which it remains fairly 
constant, declining gradually after the twelfth year. The quan¬ 
tity of bark increases after the sixth year. Variations in 
cultivation, elevation, and other determining factors make it 
practically impossible to ascertain when maximum production has 
been reached. 

At most, productivity can be counted on to last twenty-five 
years, after which gardens arc generally replanted with hybrid 
seedlings. While a plantation can be renewed up to three or 
four times, a decreased production will result from each successive 
planting. Consequently, it is preferable to turn the ground over 
to some other crop before a new Cinchona planting is undertaken. 

Following is a table showing the results of tests made 
on experimental trees at Netherlands East Indies government 
plantations: 


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III. DEVIATIONS FROM OPTIMUM PHYSICAL CONDITIONS AND THEIR EFFECTS 
Variations in soil. No data available. 


Variations in subsoil . No data available except that an 
accumulation of water in the subsoil will kill off roots lying in 
this cold dampness. 

Variations in drainage . Terracing offers the only drainage 
as drainage is too costly to be undertaken. Terraces must be 
absolutely level as otherwise water will accumulate in the subsoil. 
Unless curb pits and ditches are dug the top soil will wash away. 

Variations due to direction of slope . Storms accompanying 
the North and Southwest Monsoons bring havoc if the slope is 
bared to them. For this reason only protected slopes are used. 

Variations in r ainfall . Droughts due to lateness of rainy 
monsoon retard growth. 

Variations in temperature . Growth is retarded in planta¬ 
tions at elevations higher than. 6,600 feet (60°F), while trees 
tend to sicken and die within ten years when planted below 4,000 
feet (68°F). Temperatures vary but little during day or night in 
this equatorial region. The chief danger is from night frost 
at too high elevations. 

IV, DISEASES OF CINCHONA TREES 

Djamoer p epas 

Djamoer Qepas—^is caused by Corticium javanicum Zimm. 

This mold attacks many other plants besides Cinchona, among others: 
coffee, tea, cocoa, Hevea, nutmeg, etc.—{ any of which can 
transmit the disease to Cinchona trees. Humidity in the air is 
a contributing factor to the spread of this mold, while small 
plants attacked by Helopeltis often become infected. The only 
preventative is to cut off and burn the affected areas. 


Trunic Cancer 


This disease is due to a mold caused 
Olpidiaceae. Actually trees show no sign of 
dead places on the bark which penetrate into 
same mold is also the cause of a root collar 
young trees in nursery beds. This infection 
to any of the treatments attempted. 


by Chytridinae, 
canker, but have 
the wood. This 
disease attacking 
has failed to respond 


1/ 0epas (Malay) - plant bane 
2/ Dr. A. Rant - "Mededeelingen Departement 


No. 13, 1911. 


van Landbouw 


u 















13 - 


Root Mold 

* i * 

Various types of root mold appear among Cinchona trees. 

It is typical that Cinchona trees die off in circles around 
certain types of tree stumps. There is no remedy known for this. 


Mopo 


Mopo is a disease of young Cinchona plants caused by mold 
due to excessive humidity. 

V. INSECTS, A27D OTHER RESTS 


liuch feared of the Coleopterren are the larvae of certain 
Melolonthiden. 

C-reat, though temporary, damage is-attributed to cater¬ 
pillars among which are: 

1. Attacus Atlas and A. ricini 

2. Daphnis hypo t Ileus 

3. Odonestis plagifera 

4. Metanastria hyrtaca 

5. Euproctis flexuosa 

6 . Cricula trifenestrata 

Daphnis hypotheus is difficult to trace as it takes on the 
color of the bark, whether brown or white. Euproctis flexuosa is 
best fought by burning the nests and the young caterpillars which 
are found or. the underside of the leaves. 

The worst enemy of the Cinchona tree is the Helopeltis 
Antonii Sign . A full-grown Helopeltis measures 11 mm. The female 
has a reddish brown, and the male a black torax. These insects 
feed oh the sap of the leaves which quickly turn brown and curl 
up. The worst period is at the start of the dry season just 
after cessation of the rains(in Java, during April and May). 

Helopeltis appears mainly in low lying plantations. They 
are seldom apparent at 6000 feet. It is remarked that the insect 
disappears by itself when the plantation has been roofed over. 
Enemies of this insect are not known; birds make no attempt to 
destroy them. 

Certain Ledgerianas suffer very little from this pest and 
this type of tree is more strongly cultivated since this discovery. 

After an attack by Helopeltis the trees often have a 
tendency to contract Corticium javanicum Zimin, as the infected 
places are sensitive to mold. 

The only effective control of this insect is to keep the 
ground perfectly cleared and to plant the trees closer together 
as the early ’’roofing” of the plantation eliminates Helopeltis. 







TA3LE OF SOURCES 


11 Dr. K. W. van Gorkom* s 'Oost-Indische Cultures,’ 1 " 
new edition edited try Dr. H.C. Prinsen Geerligs 

Vol. I, II, III. 

"Statistical Atstract of the Netherlands Indies, 1940" 
published ty Department of Economic Affairs, 

Central Bureau of Statistics (Batavia) 

"De Landtouwexportgewassen van Nederlandsch-Indie in 
1938" published by Department of Economic Affairs 
(Batavia) 

"1930 Handbook of the Netherlands East Indies" 
published by Department of Economic Affairs (Batavia) 

"Kina," by P. van Leersum 
"Oost-Indische Cultures," Vol. III. 




IM-FE-14 

( 1 if 



1^* BOARD OF ECONOMIC WARFARE' 


Office of Economic Warfare Analysis 
Far Eastern Division 


AGRICULTURE IN THE NETHERLANDS INDIES 
6 . Climate 




) 


April 23, 1942 


***9gr*ph ClooempUte) 

































































* 








. 












' 


















Climate, General 


T 


The Netherlands Indies extend from 6° north latitude to 11° south- 
latitude and from 95° to 141° east longitude. Although it is tropical 
country, Netherlands India has a moderate climate with no great ex¬ 
tremes. Factors tempering the sun’s rays are cloudiness and dampness. 
There is no great variation in temperature even during the night. The 
highest temperature ever recorded in Batavia was 96.4° and the lowest 
was 64.9°. 


The sun passes its zenith tvdce during each year, reaching its 
height in July and December. Seasonal variations are the result of 
monsoons. 


Southwest Monsoon 


In July an area of high pressure moves from Australia towards an 
area of low pressure in Asia, resulting in a strong southwest monsoon, 
originating in the Arabian Sea and the Gulf of Bengal. This is the so- 
called "dry" season which is felt particularly on the East and Southeast 
coasts of Java. There is no trace of this monsoon on the west coast 
of Sumatra. The west monsoon starts forming about November 17 to 21. 

Northeast Monsoon 


In January the direction of atmospheric pressure is from Asia to 
Australia, resulting in a powerful northeast monsoon which ranges over 
British India, the Arabian Sea and the Gulf of Bengal. This is the 
"rainy season" or the "good" monsoon. In Atjeh, the northernmost province 
of Sumatra, the west monsoon is felt at this period. The east monsoon 
forms around April 6-10. 


Temperature 


Readings for Batavia are typical of all coastal regions in Java. 
The temperature falls 1° F every 328 feet of ascent. 


Temperature Averages 



:Batavia 

sBandoeing 

:Fontianak 

: Medan 

: Koepang 


Average annual 

78.6° F 

71.7° F 

79.2° F 

77.4° F 

79.2° F 


Absolute maximum 

96.4° 

93.6° 

94.1° 

95.9° 

96.2° 

« 

Absolute minimum 

64.9° 

52.2° 

69.3° 

64° 

59.4° 


Average maximum 

86.2° 

61.5° 

87.3° 

86.9° 

* 80.1° 


Average minimum 

73° 

61.6° 

73.9° 

71.1° 

71.9° 



































. 







I 








- 2 - 


Cloudiness 

(Scale: 0 = entirely clear; 10 = entirely overcast) 

Batavia - average annual 6.35 

January 7.5; July 4.6; August 4.2 
Pekalongan - average annual 5.08 
Pasoeroean - average annual 4.57 


Sunshine 


.•"V .'v : 

Average annual sunshine : 


Batavia 48.6%; Pasoeroean 56.5%. 


Percentage of Possib le Sunshine 


. City : 

Jan: Feb : Mar: Apr: May: 

June: July: Aug 

• £ P" r. 

• - v-* U 

: Oct 

: Nov:Dec: 

Total 

Batavia 

37 37 50 60 65 

62 

64 69 

68 

60 

47 38 

55 V 

Pasoeroean 

40 35 48 56 58 

62 

65 67 

69 

64 

54 44 

55 


Relative Humidity 

Average annual relative humidity at Batavia 83%. Highest at night. 

Relative humidity by months, Batavia (Percent) _ 

Jan. : Feb.: Max,: Apr.: ?£ay: June: July: Aug.: Sept.: Oct.: Nov.:Dec,: Ann. 

87 88 86 85 84 83 81 78 78 79 82 85 83 

Rainfall 

The highest average annual rainfall for all Java is 48 inches, the 
lowest is 27 inches. 

However, this is based on an average of all the meteorological 
stations in Java, some of which are located in the "dry” areas of the 
Island. For the rainfall in specific areas and during certain seasons, 
the appended tables should be consulted. Considerable differences occur 
from year to year, even for the same areas and seasons. 


1/ Another source gives this figure as 67%. 












































s 


i 


t * 

t •••■ 




* ’M « 







Thunder and Rain 


Percentage of thunder and rain at Batavia: 




Thunder 

Rain 

Midnight 

- 6 a.m. 

18.3$ 

21.5$ 

6 a.m. 

- noon 

5.4 

15.8 

Noon 

- 6 p.m. 

50.1 

34.8 

6 p.m. 

- midnight 

26.2 

27.9 


Hail is unknown in Batavia, although it has been observed in 
Buitenzorg and in the Preanger District. 


Netherlands East Indies. Average Annual Rainfall ^/ 



(inches) 

Batavia. 

. 71 

3andoeng.. 


Samarang. 


Sourabaya. 


Medan... 

......... 79 

Padang.... 

. 1T5 

Palembang.. 


Pontianak. 


Balik Papan. 


Manado.. 


Macassar. 

. 113 

Amboina. 


Koepang. 



1/ Of places where rainfall is ob¬ 
served, Paloe (Manado) with a 
yearly average of 22 inches has 
the least rainfall and Tendjo 
(Banjoemas) with a yearly average 
of 277 inches has the highest. 



























































































































Netherlands East Indies, Monthly Rainfall in 1939 



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Netherlands East Indies, Meteorological Observations 


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Batavia 

' 26 

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67 

79.2° 

33 

13/:- 

71 

135.5 

Bandoeng 

2,409 

— 

63 

^po 

t 

77 

199 

77 

143.4 

Samarang 

rj 

( 

— 

74 

so° 

77 

— 

87 

139.0 

Sourabaya 

23 

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7S 

81° 

79 

64 

68 

117.5 

Medan 

S3 

1,006.6 

57 

78.5° 

34 

154 

79 

142.3 

Fadang 

23 

1,009.5 

67 

79.5° 

79 

72 

175 

191.3 

Palenbang 

- 

- 

— 

— 

— 

- 

89 

161.0 

Pontianak 

11 

l;OC9.5 

59 

81° 

83 

31 

127 

133.7 

Balikpapan 

0 

1,009.5 

— 

73.5° 

86 

- 

78 

147:5 

Manado 

22 

1,008.4 

67 

'79.2° 

§2 

39 

107 

165.7 

Macassar 

7 

■ — 

74 

79.2° 

30 

— 

113 

133.6 

Amboina 

14 

1,009.2 

55 

79.2° 

33 

66 

139 

201.4 

Koepang 

150 

1,005.5 

81 

80° 

72 

61 

56 

79.9 

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- 































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- 

























































TABLE OF SOURCES 


"Dr. K. W. van Gorkom’s ’Oost-Indische Cultures,’ n 
new edition edited by Dr. H. C. Prinsen Geerligs 
VolS.I, II, III. 

"Statistical Abstract of the Netherlands Indies, 1940" 
published by Department of Economic Affairs, 

Central Bureau of Statistics (Batavia). 

"De Landbouwexportgewassen van Nederlandsch-Indie in 1938" 
published by Department of Economic Affairs (Batavia)# 

"1930 Handbook of the Netherlands East Indies" 
published by Department of Economic Affairs (Batavia)# 

"Het Klimaat in Nederlandsch Indie" by Dr. P. J. van der Stok 
"Oost-Indische Cultures," Vol, I. 





» 















•J 
























« 








% 







* 





I 


f 





\ 



























% BOARD OF ECONOMIC WARFARE , 
Office of Economic Warfare Analysis 
Far Eastern Division 


UNRESTRICTED 



\ 

11 


AGRICULTURE 1^ THE ^ REREADS INDIES 
2. Hard Fibers (Sisal and Heneouen) 



May 7, 1942 


Mffnsgrapfc (Iw c tm pJ f fr ) 


































I. HARD FIBER PLANTS 

The Agave fourcroydes Lenaire (henequen) and the Agave 
sisalana Perrine (sisal) belong to the Amaryllidaceae family. 

The agava plants have practically no trunk; they have long roots; 
stiff, fibrous, blue-green leaves, with smooth or thorny edf?es, 
and funnel-shaped flowers. 

» l 

Agave fourcroydes produces the true henequen an^ is also' 
called "white sisal". The leaf is aiwa 7 r r s sea-green (gray-blue), 
straight and stiff, and about 40" - SO" long'an^ approximately 
3" wide in the middle, tapering off to an inch-lo^g thorn at 
the point. The leaf is edged with short curved thorns (3-4 mm). 

The peduncle is 13 to 25 feet high and has fairly strong 
horizontal branches with thick clusters of flowers at the 
ends. These flowers form the seed pods. The base of the plant 
is only 20 to 60 inches tall and is 10 to 15 inches thick. 

Henequen grows only in a warm dry climate and requires loose, 
permeable, calcareous ground. The life span of this plant ranges 
from ten to twenty-five years. Under good conditions the leaf 
yields 4-5 par cent clean dry fiber. Henequen is grown"from 
suckers, bulbils, or seed. In practice only suckers are used. 

Agave sisalana (Syn, A. rigida sisalana) is'the green 
sisal. The leaf is dark green, or light sea-green, and is strai^t 
but less stiff than agave fourcroydes. It is 40" to 70 ir long'and 
3" to 5" wide in the middle, tapering off to a thin thorn, about 
an inch in length. There are generally no edge thorns $ any that 
may exist are small an^ curved. The flower stalk is 13 to 25 
feet tall with slender branches. Blossoms are about two inches’ 
long an' 3 form bulbils, but never seed pods. Sisal seldom develops 
a definite trunk. 

Sisal grows best in a dry climate in permeable, lime soil. 
Sisal requires more space for cultivation than henequen. Favor¬ 
able conditions will produce a leaf having 3^r per cent of clean 
dry fiber, whiter and stronger than henequen. Propagation’is by 
means of suckers or bulbils. Suckers are preferred although bul¬ 
bils are easier to transport. 


II. COFDITICHS OF GROWTH AND- HARVESTING 


Soil 

y 

A dry, sandy soil about 8 inches deen, in an arid, stony 
region is ideal for agava cultivation and produces the greatest 
fiber content. The plant will grow in a richer soil but the 
fiber content of the leaves will diminish. Agava will also vrow 
in poor soil but upkeep costs are higher. 

Subsoil 

A permeable, calcareous subsoi 1 with a limestone base is 
particularly suitable. - 

Drainage 

The arid regions and the nature of t^c soil best suited 
to the cultivation of agava eliminate the * necessity of drainage. 
.Subterranean water deposits must, however, bo avoided or drained 

Direction of slope 

Agava grows best on level terrain as near as possible 
to sea level. , • 

• i # •» 

Rainfall 

The least possible rainfall is desired as agava leaves 
draw their essential moisture requirements from the air and 
the roots are extremely sensitive to heavy rains. The optimum 
desirable rainfall would not exceed 50 inches annually. 

. ,• » * . 

» 

Temperature 


Optimum temperatures for agava cultivation range from" 

80° F to 97° F. A high relative humidity is essonti.al prefer¬ 
ably 73 - 89 por cont R'l. Agava will not floirrish in shady 
regions as the : leaves have a tendency to turn red when shadowed. 

»r* . 








Methods of Production 


Seeding , /Agava'is'practically never grown'from sood. 
Propagation takes place by. means of bulbils or suckers. 

When bulbils reach a length five to six inches they 
fall off the plant. These are then planted in nurseries 18 
inches apart in rows of eight to ten inches. During the early 
days, plants are sprinkled when necessary. At the end of a 
year slants are about 18 inches tall and are'ready to be trans¬ 
planted. Nursery beds have a permeable soil, well cleared 
and free of stones. Suckers are even better than bulbils. In 
its second or third year the agava plant puts out“subterranean 
suckers which form individual plants about 35 to 40 inches 
from the mother plant from which they receive nourishment. 

These are removed to protect the mother slant "from loss of* 
nutrition, although one or two arc generally loft to roslace 
the original slant should this die off. When the new slants 
are about 20 inches high they are cut off and may be planted 
directly in the gardens. Smaller plants are first sot opt in" 
nursery beds, often remaining for as much as two years, before 
they can bo satisfactorily transplanted. 

Transplanting . Before being transplanted all roots are 
amputated and the young plant is left in the sun for about one 
month with the wounds upwards, causing them to heal more quickly 
and alleviating chances of root diseases. Suckers are set out 
in nurseries 16 by 20 inches apart or 20 x 20 inches. Plants 
are taken to full ground when 16 to 18 inches tall. 

Spacing . Agava plantations arc set out 4 1 x 4' (5 1 x 5') 
or 3 1 x 10’. 

Maintenance . Pits should not be too big. These arc gen¬ 
erally 20 inches ^cop with a diameter of 10 inches. Plants from 
nursery beds are set in the holes and supported by stones. 

Good maintenance and fertilizing are desirable although 
not essential. During the two years following transplanting 
there is nothing to be done except to keep the terrain cleared. 
Other crops are not interplantcd among agava. 







- 4 - 


Harvest 


Agava raised from seed cannot be harvested for ten’ years, 
while plants grown from bulbils are ready after seven wars and 
those originating from suckers are harvcstable at 5 or 6 years. 

In Java loaves are often cut-after three or four years but older 
plants urcduce longer fibers. Three-year old plants give 3 to 
3\ per cent fiber, whereas six to seven-year old'plants produce 
4 t to 4-J- per cent fiber. In practice the first cut is not made 
until lower leaves measure 20 inches and in Java only leases 
standing out at a 45° angle from the heart arc taken. In Ja T ‘ r a, 
leaves measure 6 feet by the fourth year. Three or four harvests 
arc made annually on each plant in Java, producing about 30 
leaves per plant. 

The dry season is the best time ^or harvesting, but after 
a too prolonged drought the leaf becomes stiff and difficult to" 
defibor. Intervals between cutting depend on the degree of ripe¬ 
ness of the leaves. 

,1 4 

Cuts are made with a small "arit," or grass-knife, as 
close as possible to the stem. The knife is pulled through from 
top to bottom of a leaf, after which an 3 ^ side thorns arc removed. 
Badly damaged leaves arc loft but those with an occasional spot 
are taken. Crops are tied in bundles of 50 loaves. Harvesting 
continues until the death of the plant and in Java lasts over 
a period of about seven ye cars. Women and children are frequently 
employed at this task. 

Primary Processing 

Inasmuch as agava loaves amount to over 05 per cent 
ballast, transportation must not be over too groat distances; 
thus to minimize costs, factories are handy to plantations.''Water 
must bo available in the vicinity; this is in fact a prime con¬ 
sideration. Leaves must be processed immediately upon arrival'' ’ 
at the factory as discoloration will result after 24 hours which 
will hot disappear through sun bleaching. 

Extraction of fiber can be accomplished by various methods. 
Small plantations rot the leaves in still water leaving bacteria 
to develop and disolve the binder. Once tho fiber bundles are 
freed and softened the tissue is isolated. ‘Care must bo taken to 
neither leave the loaves too long m tho water, nor too short a 
time to permit proper processing. Loaves .are bruised before ’ 
being placed in the water. Then pieces o^ limestone are placed 
in the pans to neutralize the acid content. 




- 5 - 


The system of extracting fiber by hand produces the finest 
fibers. With simple and primitive equipment a man can extract 
about 6-9 pounds of hemp daily. 

Small manually operated defibering machines are in general 
use, among others the "Defibreur-Duchemin." The number of semi¬ 
automatic machines is legion. The small machine with the single 
or double grater (raspador) is entirely satisfactory. A "ras- 
pador" consists of a drum about one foot long and 40 inches in 
diameter on which there are a number of dull blades as wide as 
the axle. The drum rests in a frame attached to a moveable 
•block in ouch a way that the leaf is pressed against the fast" 
rotating drum. A leaf is inserted in the machine between block 
and drum, and is beaten to a pulo by the knives. 

Automatic installations rcauiro larger machines similar in 
construction to the "raspador. n Among others are the "Prieto" 
and the "Nou-Corona" (Fried Krupp A.-G.). Fiber emitting'■from 
the machines is mashed off or allowed to rot for 24 Hours, then 
wrung out or the mater thrown off by centrifugal force, after 
which the fiber is dried and bleached in the sun on bamboo frames. 
Sun drying is not always practicable for large installations and 
artificial drying must be resorted to. 

Dried fibers are further processed a brushing machine 
built on the principle of the "Rasoador," with stif^ brushes in 
place of blades. A 10 per cent loss results from this process 
and while manual processing diminishes the waste it is twice 
as costly. 

Cleaned fibers are pressed in bales of 440 to 550 pounds. 
Oil or tobacco presses are usod for this operation. Fibers care 
laid straight and should nover be bent or folded. Tobacco mats 
or gunny sacking aro used for the wrapping which is socured by 
metal bands. 

Any enterprise producing ovor 200 tons of fiber a year will 
need automatic machinery. 

III. PRODUCTION 

In Java the agava produces about 1 - 1-f tons per "bouw" 
(tillage) 1/ annually. Under particularly favorable conditions 
production may rise as high as 2 tons. Approximately 2000 pounds 
of fiber per acre of 1000 plants may be expected annually, at max¬ 
imum production. 


l/ 1 bouw = 1.75 acres 



- 6 - 


IV. EFFECTS OF DEVIATION FROM OPT IMF CONDITIONS 

SOIL 

A richer soil will not detract from the growth of agava 
plants and while the fiber content shrinks appreciably 5n fertile 
soil, the increased Quantity of loaf to some extent compensates 
for this loss in quality. 

Subsoil 

Agava grows unsatisfactorily in a oure sandy subsoil and 
equally badly in a pure loan subsoil. 

Drainage 

While the very nature of the soil most suited to agava 
cultivation obviates the necessity for drainage, nevertheless 
stagnant subterranean water is extremely harmful as the roots 
cannot stand a largo amount of moisture. 


Rainfall 

Roots arc sensitive to heavy rains an' 1 succumb quickly. 

Temperature 

Temperatures in the Netherlands Indies never rise above 
the maximum temperature range for agava cultivation (97° F.) 
and the average temperature of about SO 0 F. prevalent in Java 
seldom varies to any groat degree. 

V. DISEASE 

Sickness and nests attacking agava plants are unknown 
in Java. Lightening causes damage, and spots on'leaves result 
from excessive boat and dryness. The light rod color, sometimes 
noticed on agava leaves is believed due to insufficient drainage 
of the ground. 







TA3LE OF SOURCES 


n Dr. K. W. van Gorkom's 'Oost-Indischo Cultures,'" 
noTT edition edited bv Dr. H. C. Prinsen Geerligs 
Vol, I, II, III. 

'’Statistical Abstract of the Netherlands Indies, l°40 ,f 
published by Department of Economic Affairs, 

Central Bureau of Statistics (Batavia) 

"Do Landbouuoxportgcuasson van Fcdorlandsch-Indi6* in 103#" 
published by Department of Economic Affairs (Batavia) 

"1930 Handbook of the Netherlands East Indies" 
published by Department of Economic Affairs (Batavia) 

"Vozclstoffcn," by Dr. J. J. Zci.ilstra Fzn. 

"Oost-Indischo Cultures," Vol. III. 







^RESTRICTED 



li S. boafjd o? sc on 

Office of Bconor.ic To.rfar 3 Analysis 
Far Sa.stern Division 


AGRICIJITjF-B IN THB RSTHCRLAITSS INDUS 
3. Coconut Fain ( Cocus Nucifora ) 



May 5, 1942 


























. 






























■ : 

' 































































• . 



































\£>.v 

I. CONDITIONS OF GROWTH AID HARVESTING 


Optimum physical and economic conditions under which 
the coconut palm (Cocus Nucifera L) grows in the Netherlands 
East Indies include: 


Soil 


A light, porous soil, covered with a good humus layer, 
is preferred for coconut cultivation. The sandy soil along 
the beaches is satisfactory. The vicinity of the sea has 
no detrimental effect on the growth of this plant. 

Subsoil 


The ideal subsoil for coconut palms is the loamy sand 
soil found in alluvial coastal regions. Equally satisfactory 
is old forest ground with sandy subsoil. The earth should 
be well drained. 


Drainage 


The coconut palm requires much water and from time 
to time the ground may be completely inundated provided it 
is sufficiently porous to drain rapidly, so that the roots 
will not be submerged for too long periods. 

Direction of slope 


Coconut trees grow best on the plains and the 
maximum elevation suitable for cultivation is approximately 
3000 feet. 


Rainfall 

The Cocus nucifera requires an abundance of rain. 
Minimum rainfall requirements are estimated at 79 inches. 

Where irrigation is available a lesser precipitation will 
suffice. The average annual rainfall of 71 inches for Batavia 
is typical of all coastal regions in Java. Following are 
the precipitation averages at Batavia (sea level): 

Average annual prccipitation 
Number of rainy days annually 

Seasonal distribution in inches 

Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June July Aug. Sept. 

16.3 14.8 16.5 17.3 14.4 10.7 7.3 9.6 12.6 


71" 

135 


• • i 


Oct. Nov. Dec. 
17.2 17.6 12.5 








2 


T omporature 

The coconut palm is a truo tropical plant requiring 
an abundance of sunshine and warmth with the greatest possible 
even distribution. This palm grows more slowly in the in¬ 
terior and bears fruit loss rapidly as the temperature drops 
with increased elevation. The boundary of fruitfulness is 
reached at 2600 - 3300 feet. The optimum average temperature 
is 78° F to 79° F. 

Following temperatures were measured at Batavia: 


Average 

annual 

78.6° 

ii 

maximum 

86.2° 

t! 

minimum 

73° 

Absolute 

maximum 

96.4° 

it 

minimum 

64.9° 


Average annual sunshine at Batavia: 48.^6% 

Average annual relative humidity at Batavia.: 83'u 

Methods of Production 

Cultivation of coconut trees is almost entirely in the 
hands of the natives. Two types of coconut cultivation exist 
in the archipelago: estate production and native cultivation. 

The latter tends to be rather haphazard and unscientific. It 
is easy for the native cultivator to obtain the best seed as 
he can choose well ripened nuts and take the most developed, 
which is generally the lowest in a chomp. These are hung on 
rafters in the home or on bars in sheds and left to sprout. 

It is, however, preferable to let the roots develop in their 
natural environment. The first leaf appears after three months, 
by which time the roots have pushed through the fibrous shell. 

At this stage the nuts can be planted directly in the clearing 
chosen for the plantation but they are generally sot out in 
nurseries where they arc afforded protection from strong 
sunshine and wild jigs. Nine months later the young trees are 
planted in previously prepared holes. The tendency is to plant 
trees more closely than is advisable in order to obtain greater 
production per area despite all education along these lines. 

I 

Estate production is undertaken on a more scientific 

basis: 

Seeding . It is more difficult to pick out the choicest 
seed in large scale cultivation, therefore seed is obtained 
from regions known to give the best production. Nuts are planted 






directly in nursery "beds. Suitable, well-drained ground near 
rater is chosen. After the ground is well worked and cleared 
of weeds or roots, the nuts are placed in.the ground, evenly 
spaced at 20 inches. The nuts are all laid in the sane direction, 
the length-wise axle lying horizontal, with the seed opening 
on top. The intervening spaces are filled with loose earth 
nixed with ash to prevent vernin. Cooking salt is sometimes 
used instead of ash; however, too much salt is harmful. 

Nursery beds require a great deal of attention. They 
must be watered regularly in the dry-season and provision has 
to bo made for shading the young plants from the direct rays 
of the sun. Shadowing is so arranged that the plants have 
been accustomed to the sun by the tine they are transplanted. 

It is essential that plants be well cleared to control vermin. 
Plots are fenced in as protection aoainst outside enemies. 

About 30 percent more nuts are planted than required and those 
which have not sprouted, or which produce unsat isfactory plants 
ar e cli sp en s ed wi th. 

Transplantin g. Transplanting is done at the beginning 
of the rainy season. The terrain to which young plants are 
moved must be completely cleared, with all tree stumps and roots 
dug up and destroyed. Holes dug for 1 to l^r year old trees 
are forty inches long, wide, and deep. The developed roots 
can then spread out. The hole is lined with stable dung 
or vegetable humus mixed with the excavated top soil. 

Plants are pulled out of beds with as much adhering 
soil as possible and removed carefully and rapidly to the chosen 
sites. The plants are placed in pits in the same position 
as they stood in nursery beds with the top of the nut just be¬ 
low the surface of the ground. Holes are filled in'with the 
lc'se earth which is carefully pressed down. Unless it rains 
im iediately the seedlings must be watered directly after trans¬ 
planting takes place. 

Plants left in nurseries provide material to replace 
trees failing to survive transplanting or showing unsatisfactory 
growth. 

Spacing . Coconut trees are planted in straight rows 
forming squares, or rhomboidally. The question of spacing is 
controversial, as a spacing of 23 feet provides double the 
quantity of trees planted at 33 feet. A distance of 23 feet 
apa.rt is too small as this dees not allow sufficient light and 
air for full grown trees. 




- 4' - 


Cultivation . Native cultivation sel&on includes any 
great maintenance. An a rule, the natives merely keep the reeds 
dovn. The habit of cutting foot treads in the trees, while 
inadvisable, is common-in native undertakings. 

In large-scale enterprises, while it is generally 
desirable to keep the ground around each tree well cleared, 
this is neither possible nor desired during the first years, 
as the unshadowed ground is too quickly dried out by the rays 
of the tropical sun. Later, as the palms spread out, their 
shadow helps keep the ground clean. Grazing cattle also help 
in keeping the ground cleared. 

f 

The top layer of soil is loosened from tine to tine to 
permit infiltration of light and easing of gas rotation in 
the ground. 


The trees require a certain amount of maintenence; 
falling leaves and dried blossom sheaths must be removed and 
"air-roots" eliminated from the bulging lower trunk. Such 
refuse is removed from the plot arid left to decompose for 
fertilizer. Decomposition of the cleared out plants provides 
a better fertilizer than when they are reduced to ash with 
a. resulting loss of nitrogen. 


Harvesting 

Coconut trees bloom all year and, consequently, bear 
fruit at all times. The number of nuts on a cluster varies. 
Generally, the smaller the fruit the more there are on a 
bunch. An average of eight medium sized nuts to a cluster is 
not unusual. 


Natives,‘having but a few trees for their own use, 
harvest these at will. Those possessing larger plantations 
pluck the fruit every "Djoemahat Kliwon," i.e. every 35 days. 
Natives climb the trees with the aid of foot holds cut every 
foot and a half. The ripe coconuts are cut or twisted off 
and simply dropped to the ground. In Sumatra monkeys are 
trained as "coconut pickers’!. In Sumatra hired workers are 
paid one coconut per every completely picked tree. In Java the 
rate is two nuts to a tree. The larger plantations are 
harvested regularly every month or two months. The picking 
takes place in the same maimer. 


Under normal conditions trees bear their first fruit 
in the seventh or eighth year, but a full harvest cannot bo 
counted on until the tenth to the fifteenth year. 




Primary Processing 


Copra . Preparation of copra is simple. Well-ripened 
nuts arc used, and cars is taksn in thsir prsparation. Freshly 
plucked nuts are laid in the open air and sun to dry for a 
tine, then the shells are pried open and the kernel cut in 
half. The milk is generally lost in this process. 

Although copra can he dried by artificial means, in 
Java it is usually sun dried. The nuts are spread out, with 
the open side up, in the full sunshine. During showers and at 
night boards on which the nuts are drying are rolled under a 
raised roof. Under a strong sun, drying takes about five days. 
Interruptions due to rain or other causes have a detrimental 
effect on the quality. 

Besides natural moisture, the inside of the kernel is 
wet from coconut milk. Consequently the preliminary drying 
should be as rapid as possible. Inner moisture evaporates 
slowly and kernels are often damp when the copra superficially 
appears to be well dried. 


First quality copra is light in color, hard and solid. 

It should not mold, nor contain sand, earth or other impurities. 

Although sun dried copra is preferred, kiln drying is 
used as an alternate method. This only requires 24 hours at 
70° C. However, lain dried copra is darker and less valuable 
due to the smoky odor. 

In Java an average of 5000 coconuts are required to 
produce one ton of copra. 

Coconut o il and cake . Copra is sifted and cleaned of 
all impurities and dirt. It is then broken up, grated and 
finely ground. The meal is warmed up, moistened and pressed 
in hydraulic presses. The oil thus obtained is filtered and 
packed in containers. The pressed meal or cake is used as 
cattle feed. Comparative receipts are approximately 62 percent 
oil and 34 percent cake. 

Fiber. Fiber constitutes the third product of the 
coconut and is used in the manufacture of ropes and mats. 

The fibrous shell is left to rot in stagnant or moving 
water, or it is buried in the ground. After about four months 
the material binding the fiber together disintegrates. Fiber 
is then beaten with a piece of wood, twisted or wrong by hand, 
and dried in the sun. 








- 6 


/ 


Longest fibers are used-in the manufacture of "brooms 
and "brushes; shorter fibers are used to fill cushions or are 
worked into yarn or into, a rope which is known for its lightness, 
strength and resistance to sea water. Mats a.re also manu¬ 
factured of coconut fiber. 

About 40 nuts are necessary to produce seven pounds 
of fiber. 


Uessicated Coconut . Grated coconut is pure white in 
color and is carefully prepared from divided coconut. 

After shelling and opening choice ripe nuts, the brown 
covering skin is removed and the kernel washed off, as the 
adhering milk turns the meat yellow. The pieces are ground by 
a disintegrator or by moans of grating, circular saws, and 
cutting machines. The grated coconut is dried in hot ovens 
and packed in tins. When mixed with water this product is 
similar in every respect to fresh grated coconut. 

About 6,700 nuts are necessary to manufacture one ton 
of dessicated coconut. / 

II. PRODUCTION 

Coconut trees produce fruit after the seventh year 
but a regular harvest is not obtained until the tenth year; 
in some instances not •'until the fifteenth year. Maximum 
productivity is reached after the fifteenth year and remains 
fairly constant until the tree is seventy years old, after 
which time production gradually dwindles. The life span of 
a carefully tended tree is roughly estimated at one century. 

An untended tree vail barely yield 20 coconuts a year. 

In well maintained plantations trees will produce 50 to 60 
nuts annually and it is not unusual for trees in a carefully 
tended, well fertilized plot to-yield around 80 to 100 coconuts. 
In particularly fertile districts a tree may produce as high 
as 150 nuts a year. 

At 50 coconuts per tree, spaced at 26 feet, production 
averages over 3000 nuts annually for the 64 trees per acre. 

At 44 trees per acre the yield is over 2000 coconuts. In the 
Netherlands Indies an average annual production is one ton of 
copra per plot.l^/ 


17 Figured at approximately 7800 coconuts from 156 trees 
per hectare. 


0 





- 7 - 


III. DEVIATIONS FROM OPTIMUM CONDITIONS 

Variations in soil and subsoil 


Heavy clay, marshy land and turf ground are unsuitable 
for coconut tree cultivation. Barren, arid, sandy beaches 
are equally unsatisfactory. 

Variations in drainage 

Blooded grounds will not affect trees but it is 
essential that the ground drain quickly and thoroughly. 

Variation of slope 

Coconut pains thrive best on level ground and growth 
is unsatisfactory above a few hundred feet. 

Variation in rainfall 

Prolonged, severe droughts will prevent trees from 
bearing fruit for their duration. While the coconut trees 
bloon all year, blossoms appear at longer intervals during 
the Bast Monsoon than in the rainy season and trees put off 
blossoming entirely during protracted dry spells. 

Variation in temperature 

Being a true tropical tree the coconut palm becomes un¬ 
productive when the temperature drops more than a few degrees 
below the optimum. 

IV. ANIMAL PBSTS AND DISEASES 

Much destruction in young plantations is caused by 
monkeys and wild pigs which root up the ground end eat young 
leaves. 


Coconut rats, a type of squirrel, eat the fruit on 
coconut trees. They nest in the crown of the palms and 
multiply rapidly. To prevent rats climbing the trees, broad tin 
bands or collars are nailed around the lower trunk of trees; 
then the pests are cleared out of the pains. As they can jump 
great distances all nearby trees must be cleared out in like 
manner. Poison is also effectively used. 

White ants also cause much damage by boring into the 
fibrous shell and eating away the fruit. To combat ants, trees 
are sprayed with carbon sulphur. 








- 8 - 


Most destructive of all are the beetles, primarily the 
Rhynehophours. Although this beetle does no damage when full 
grown, it lays its eggs in wounds in the pains and the larvae 
burrow deep into the leaf. The best preventative is to keep 
the palms undamaged as much as possible and to coat all wounds 
with coal tar. 

The worst enemy of the coconut palm is Oryctes Rhinoceros. 
In nursery beds this beetle digs a channel in the ground until 
it reaches the sprouting plant. When attacking trees it burrows 
into the heart of the plant, starting where the palm joins 
the trunk, causing the palms to droop. The insects fly around 
.at sunset and light on the trees whe^e they settle down and dig 
in during the night. Remedial measures include: 

1. Seeking out and destroying beetles, larvae 
and eggs. 

2. Laying out artificial breeding places in 
which insects can bo killed or burned every 
six weeks. 

3. Cleaning up all breeding places such as 
dead trees, manure heaps, rotten leaves, 
etc., where eggs can be laid. 

Coconut trees suffer little from sickness. The only 
disease prevalent in the Netherlands East Indies is a mold 
caused by Pestalozzia. Palmarum Cooke. The best cure for this 
is ”Bordoau Pap,” or cutting off and burning affected leaves. 


TABLE OF SOURCES 


"Dr.-K.U. van Gorkon 1 s 1 Oost-Indische Cultures,* M 
ne77 edition edited by Dr. H.C. Frinsen Geerligs 
Vols. I» II, III. 

"Statistical Abstract of the Netherlands Indies, 1940" 
published by Department of Economic Affairs, Central 
Bureau of Statistics (Batavia). 

"Be Londbourexpor t p 2 mass on van Nederlandsch-Indie in 1938 
published by Department of Economic Affairs (Batavia). 

"0lie^evassen" by Dr. J.J.A.Wijs, "Oost-Indische Cultures 
Vol. II. 



























<v 







< 







































IM-FE-9 

sh 

' v ^ k 


I 

U.S ,board of economic warfare . 

Office of Economic Warfare Analysis 
Far Eastern Division 





AGRICULTURE IN TUE NETHERLANDS INDIES 
4* Tanioca (Cassava) 


May 26, 1942 


HwwjrjpV CTMmpM 




















This study includes the two types of cassava generally 
cultivated in the N. E. I.: bitter cassava O'anihot utilissima Pohl^ 
and sweet cassava (Manihot palmata I hie ller). Cassava grows on all 
islands of the archipelago. In sawahs it is grown as a secondary 
crop and in non-inundated areas as a nain cron. Cassava flourishes 
on the beaches or in the mountains (3000 feet), The slant belongs 
to the order of Tricoccae of the Euohorbiaceae family and is t v e 
Manihoc type. 


Cassava is a perennial shrub-like riant with thick, hard, 
turnip-shaped roots 15 to 20 inches long. The root is rich in 
starch and contains a milky poison which is eliminated by washing 
or heating. Propagation takes place by means of slips or cuttings. 

Cassava is grown under the following conditions in the 
archipelago: 


Soil 


Light, sandy soil is chosen. Ground must be permeable, 
deeply tilled, and the earth loosened. Sand, mixed with loam 
and humus is a satisfactory soil. As cassava draws substantial 
Quantities of potash and phosphoric-acid out of the soil, suf-“ 
ficient fertilizer containing these elements must h e frequently 


applied. 


Subsoil 


Subsoil should be permeable as roots are sensitive to damp- 

x 

ness. 


Drainage 


Soil must be ~ell drained as roots ^ill not develop in ex' 
cessive moisture. 


Direction of Slope 


Cassava plants ~ive a bettor production on level teru- 
raih, but will grow at elevations up to 2,500 feet. 


Rainfall 



Precipitation measurements at -Batavia and Bandoeng are 


as 


follows: 


Average a 

!l 


Batavia Bandoeng 

nnual precipitation 
n number of rainy 135 143 

days 









4 



i 


r 



«« 







J 






























- 2 - 


Temperature 

duce the ii " ,,ar,n, danp clira * te to Pro- 

shady areas. Bulk ^velopment. decrease. i n 

level and R-rdoong at 2400 fdat: §S *** <?1Ven for Batavia at sea 


Average annual 
maximum 
" min inrun 

Absolute maximum - * 
minimum 

Average annual sunshine 
" rainfall 


Batavln 

78.6° F 
86 . 2 ° 
730 

96.4° 

64.9° 

♦ 

l*.6% 

S3% 


Bandoeng 

71.7? F 
81.5° 
61.6? 
93.6° 
52.2° 

63 * 

77? 


:’:G o.lods of Prpdootnj-vri 

. cassava, th^roots of whicAtav^rinA^h C0 ® fln ® d to "hits 
glucose content. lo ” P russi ° add containing 

West nonsTOns?' P^o^t 1 ^ 0 ^ S i 3 ^° Hplishe A a ' urinsr ' bct >’ Bast and. * 
with 2 or 3 Avcs" evY! reans ° f slips, 8" to 15” long 
cuttings give ^n -rfCX ? G ? d " ron . thG Parent stem. Upper 
shortly before planting ^q^+v) n 7 at2r ^ - should bo cut 

are smoothed off cStir^ 7 ^ f ut ' buic ^- The cut edges 

slight inon . ^agings are planted vertically o^ n 

s ^iono incline f in rovrs nmrvinr? v w », # * * a 

and deeply tilled soil p-| * * r ^-$outh ln Previously prepared 

—■•■**** r ?5?arissai5f 

In a fow^onths^hoots^apnoar Yd t^hS* |f?" ? lant<H t6 ?-thof. 
Tho ground is carefully wooded during AAaT A ?°°? cov ? r ° a *" 
ground is shaded no other caro is »v=c-. q T~hf t p3r:l0<3 but once the 
boteoon the rows to loosen tho soil a f rio ? ioal hoeing 

employed for this operation P1 + * " sr ~ wooden plow is often 

by removing tho flower buds" rw Y Y Drev ? nte<J flowering 
proves the growth " roots!' ° CCa81onal of branches ir- 









-3 - 


Harvest - 

Tho optimum harvesting period is not exactly defined. To 
a certain stage, the longer the roots remain in the ground the 
bettor they will develop. After a certain point the. starch con¬ 
tent starts to decrease. In level terrain the crop is harvested 
around eight or nine months after planting. Harvests are some- 
; what.later in the.mountains. Roots are dug up or pulled up'by 

the 1* - 1-j^ 1 stem remaining after the plant has been foiled. Roots 
are cut off the trunk and transported to the factories. 

X 

Primary Processing 

. • * .. 

Gaplek . This product is prepared in the N. E. I. from fresh 
cassava roots. Peeled and dried roots are quartered and each auar- 
tcr is cut into three or four lengthwise nieces. These pieces 
are well washed and dried in the sun ^or 5 to 6 days, n^ter which 
the product is ready to be exported as a "gaplek,” If it is not 
v;oll dried it will mould quickly. 

• ✓ 

Gaplek is also produced in flake form; this, too, is washed 
in clean, running water and dried in the sun. The drying process”' 
is important as fresh cassava roots contain 50 to 70 percent’water, 
whereas tho moisture content of good gaplek is around 15 percent, 
(Every two tons of fresh, peeled root will produce one ton of 
gaplek), ' . 

Gaplek Flour . To produce this product the, cjaeplek is finely 
ground to a meal; the quality of the gaplek used is of consider¬ 
able importance. Mouldy and dirty gaplek produces a dark meal, 

while carefully prepared gaplek will give, .a, white real when milled. 

* 

Before 1927, only gaplek was exported, .and, this was milled 
at its destination; since that time milling has boon done at the 
point of origin because: 

1. Gaplek meal is loss voluminous than aaplok, 
thus lowering transoortatiop costs; 

2, Gaplek can bo milled more choaplv in Java, ", 

due to low"pages, thus reducing the price pf the 
finished article in'Europe and America, 













- 4 - 


Tapioca Flour . In the N. E. I. tapioca flour is scienti¬ 
fically proparod according to western methods, even in the small¬ 
est enterprises, most of which are. in the hands of the Chinese. 

. V • , ‘ ' «>• * . 

Tapioca flour is prepared from: 

1. Fresh Cassava roots from plantations 

2. Fresh Cassava roots from native holdings 

3. Native meal delivered wot to small factories 

4* Native meal, delivered dry to small factories 

5. Gaplek 

6. Gaplek meal 

i - 

Tapioca flour, prepared from selected roots (scientifi¬ 
cally prepared and rapidly transported to factories after har¬ 
vesting) , is a fairly pure starch product.' Standards of Duality 
are based on color, purity, viscosity and carak, i.c, bv car. 

This product naturally brings a higher price. 

- Tapioca flour, prepared from ro^ts purchased from native 
holdings is also a practically mire starch product, but o^ loss 
constant quality, due to: 

1. Variations in roots 

2. Irregular transportation (long drawn out) 

3. Poor control during nrocossing 

It is of greatest importance that roots bo worked in a 
fresh state. Primary preparation for all roots, consists of 
washing and grating the neulcd or impeded roots. After grating, 
the starch is thinned with water, sieved and-sprinkled, an^ all 
impurities removed. The remaining mass is nlaced in settling 
pans and the water allowed to run off, leaving only flour after 
moisture has evaporated. As the top and bottom o^ these cakes 
erne thn least pure, they are scraned of, The cleaned flour cakes 
are then washed and stirred in stirring vats, after which they are 
again returned to the sediment pans. The final operation is the 
drying of the flour thus, produced—either in the sun or arti¬ 
ficially. 

The wet native meal is generally used by small buyers 
enterprises, who first dryvand clean ihemeal and there stetl3? it as tapio 
flour under their trade names. Sometimes this is bought up bv 
large factories and purified an^ 3 refined. Duo to the lapse of 
time during processing, this is generally an unsatisfactory oro- 
duct of low quality and each individual lot shows great variations. 



- 5 - 


The - dry native moal, ’Thicb Is .pruparbd and dried on the 
.snot, is bought by traders. Because of the primitive prepara¬ 
tion arid..cleaning (consisting only : of grinding an' 1 boiling), this 
oroduct is of even lower quality than the. grades listed above. 

The scientific preparation of tapioca flour from garlek 
is similar to the-• methods used in preparing it ^rom fresh roots. 
There is a reluctance to purchasing this in the IT, 3,, although 
when oropcrly prepared it is similar in.all details to tapioca 
flour prepared from fresh roots. Preparation takes place as 
follows: Colls are opened by milling or grating the gaplok. 

The opened colls are washed and sifted to clean out tho ’’ampas.’ 1 
Starch is derived b' r lotting the flour milk settle. 

Preparation of tapioca flour from gaplok meal is inad¬ 
visable as it is difficult to clean thoroughly. Particles of' 
fibrous vrasto and fine sand and clay pieces cannot bo avoided, 
’even by careful sieving. Tho product inevitably has a rrrayish 
color. 

* t t . . . •' t v I / . 

. ^ •, »• 

•..'.'/. Tapioca Flakes and Siftings . Preparation of flakes and 

siftings requires first quality factory flour. The (moist) 
taoioca flour is hoatod in pans until it adheres to the metal.' 
The mass is" scraped loose until the flour curdles and stiffens, 
at which point it is partially transparent. After the product 
cools it is sifted into flakes and siftings. 

/ Tapioca Pearl and Seeds . This is also prepared from half- 
moist first quality tapioca flour. Tho moist flour is pressed 
through a coarse sieve and placed in an open-end sack of twilled 
cloth,.shaken hither and you by two people, until the movement 
results, according to length of time pursued, in small or largo 
balls. When- the required size seeds or pearls is attained, the 
product is sifted, after which the moist seeds or pearls are 
..heated in an iron pan. When cooled and dried the pc 11 -known 
pearls result and pro sifted to medium, small and seed pearls; 
Recently; a mechanical method has'boon evolved for this process 
through the use of evenly heated, rotating drums. Care is given 
to keep the desired color (white and opalescent) and to ensure 
. that ,tho grains do not break in cooking. 

j* * ' 

Annas . The waste from the preparation of flour is dried 
and used in lunn, fragment, or ground form, known as "amoas.” 
Aip.pas imported'in England may not'have' a”raw fiber, content high¬ 
er than 8 percent. 






.Usos of Cassava Products 

Tho different cassava products have various .uses. As gap- 
lek and gaplck meal are practically the same thing they arc used 
for the sane purposes. In cakes this is an important cattle find, 
Gaplek is also used in industry for the preparation of industrial 
alcohol and glucose* Whore molasses is plentiful cassava is not 
used due to the higher production costs. 

Gaplck is also important as h'liman foodstuff. ^Yhcn rice is 
scarce and dear, gaplck is largely consumed. It cannot ho used 
as a primary foodstuff, however, due to the low albumen and fat 
content. 

Tapioca flour also has various usos. Besides being'a food¬ 
stuff and the base of the finer tapioca products (pudding, ver¬ 
micelli, and biscuit) this flour is also used by the textile in¬ 
dustry as sizing for yarns and-woven goods, where it is preferred 
to potato flour as tapioca docs not discolor the yarn. Tapioca 
is employed in tho preparation of -dextrine-an 3 glue as well as in 
the manufacture of nitro-starch, which is one of the safest explo¬ 
sives, widely used in agriculture for blasting tree trunks, etc. 

II. PRODUCTION 

• «• • 

There are an' average of ^ivo roots to a plant ~ith‘ an aggro 
gate weight of 3 to 5 pounds. Production runs about 200-300 pi¬ 
culs per * tillage w l/ although .judiciously selected stock may pro¬ 
duce up to 500 piculs per "tillage”. Cassava is intcrolanted 
with maize, millet, tobacco, etc. 

Crop rotation is essential to the maintenance of a fertile 
soil. Fertilization alone is insufficient as the cassava roots 
draw strongly upon the soil and 3 or 4 successive planting of 
cassava will render tho soil unfruitful. Before any measure of 
success can be guaranteed for a replanting of cassava intensive 
fertilization must be undertaken. 

III. DEVIATIONS FRO?-* OPTBTJM PHYSICAL CONDITIONS 

Observed■variations 5n optimum conditions for cassava 
cultivation have disclosed that the root development is retarded 
and considerably lessened in ground containing excessive moisture. 

» “• r . •*„ 

It is also noted that all efforts to acclimate cassava to 


1/ Tillage « bouw of 1,75 acres. 


1 




areas outside the sub-tropics have.been unsuccessful. The plant 
is extremely sensitive to night frost. 

IV. DISEASES AND PESTS 

■— — .« — 

*. * « / 

Rats or mice dig up the ground to roach mots, which they 
devour. Considerable damage is caused by wild pigs. 

The greatest enemy of the cassava nlartt is an insect: the 
cassava mite, Tetranychus birac.ulatus Harv., which belongs to the 
Acarinac group and resembles a rod spider: the tea mite." The 
cassava'mite is distinguished from this Tetranychus mainly bv the 
eggs, vrhich are grey instead of red.' The only method of combatt¬ 
ing this plague is to fell the'trees, or to pluck off infected 
leaves. When trees are felled, the garden must be thoroughly 
cleaned and needed and the felled trunks burned. Early morning" 
is the best tine for this, as the mites remain dormant and thoro 
is less danger of them jumpin' 7 to uncontaminatod trees. This 
felling is of no avail after the plants are seven months old. 

Plucking off tho leaves'sometimes helps avert this blight, 
but only in those instances- when tho mite appears on small areas. 
Development of the roots and the duality both suffer from this 
operation, but it is better to pick off tho leaves than to lot 
tho mite flourish and kill tho plant outright. 

The mite spreads by cramling along tho 'round and climbing 
troe trunks. The wind, too, assists in the spread of this nui¬ 
sance by blowing tho eggs to uninfected plants. Sometimes the mite 
is carried on tho clothing of laborers. 

Certain typos of lady bugs and one other type of mite arc" 
tho natural enemies of this mite. Those arc, however, not strong 
enough, to successfully combat this mite. Insecticides arc also 
used but the. high price of those sprays prohibit any large scale 
use. . Surveys of the situation in Africa, the Vest Indies, and 
Reunion show a preference for bitter cassava ^hich is more re¬ 
sistant to this pest and therefore practically immune from it. 

In plantations in rolling terrain, particularly on the' 
slopes near Kodiri, some damage is caused'by the larvae of two 
typos of beetles: Loucopholis rorida Fa., an/* 1 Lcpidiota stigma 
Fab,. Tho former is tho more dangerous of the two and when it 
attacks plants to any groat extent tho leaves fall off and the 
plant shortly gives no further production. This pest is fought 
b- r plowing up the ground to bring full grown beetles to the'sur¬ 
face, whereupon they are destroyed. Poison hasboon used but'to' 
no avail. Spraying with carbon bi-sulphitc is tho^st antidote. 

Other animal pests include a beetle: Fonolopta quadri- 
punctata F., which p anagos the loaves and loaf-stalks of tho plants 


a typo of Lytta which oats loaves; an arrow-tailed noth, whose 
catcrpilLars cause considerable damage; and throe types of* lice: 
Pinnaspis, Lecaniur, and. Alourodes. 

Cassava suffers but little from diseases other than those 
caused by insects. About the ohlv wi^c spread disease is rb'ot- 
rot, from which sick plants die off, although they lator form 
now roots and stalks- and continue to grow. Rotting begins at th 
points of roots, which turn a violet color. This is more'notice 
able in terrain where cassava, has long been in production, and 
is loss'apparent in old coffee grounds whore cassava has been 
planted. The roct-rot is apparently caused by bacteria and 
there is no known cure. 


TABLE OF SOURCES 


% 

"Dr. K. W, van Gorkor's ’Oost-Indischo Cultures,’" 
now edition edited by Dr. H. C, Prinsen Geer digs 
Vol. I, II, III.. 

"Statistical Abstract of the Netherlands Indies, 1940" 
published by Departnent of Econonic Affairs,. 

Central Bureau of Statistics (Batavia) 

"Do Landbouwexportgewassen van Nodorlandsch-Indio in 1 Q 3$" 
published by Departnent Econonic Affairs (Batavia) 

"1930 Handbook of the Netherlands East Indies" 
published by Departnent of Econonic Affairs (Batavia) 

"Knol-en Wortolgcwasson," by J. J. Paercls 
"Oost-Indischc Cultures," Vol. II. 

"Do Wcrold-Situatio van Cassava in verband not den 
Ncdorlandsch-Indischen exnort van do oroduct," 
published by Departnent of Econonic Affairs (Batavia, 193#) 



IM -PE-15 


- 'S» board of economic warfare 

Office of Economic Warfare Analysis 
Far Eastern Division 



AGRICULTURE IN THE NETHERLANDS INDIES 


5. Cinchona 


April 23, 1542 













































$ 




I. CONDITIONS 0? GROWTH AND HARVESTING 


The plant under sonsideration is Cinchona calisaya. The two 
types discussed are Cinchona Ledgeriana and Cinchona suecirubra , as 
Cinchona officinalis is no longer planted in Java. 

Optimum physical and economic conditions under which Cinchona 
is grown in Java include: 


Soil 


Ah analysis was made of the composition of the soil to a 
depth of eight inches# Tests were made on earth dried at 105° C. 
Comparison was made with soil taken from a plantation under cul¬ 
tivation for forty years, from a newly cleared level ground plot 
and from a newly cleared plot in rolling terrain. Results proved 
that long cultivated land is not inferior tt> virgin soil. The 
air-dry soil of the 40 year old plantation was lighter in color 
than that of recently cleared areas, which were practically identical. 

Following are the results of the analyses: 


: : Newly Cleared Terrain _ 

:Garden 40 yrs. old : Elat land ; Rolling Terrain 


Loosely "bound water 

15.53# 

11.41# 

11.54# 

Heat loss 

25.01 

21.92 

21.61 

Chemically "bound water 

3.43 

5.44 

3.21 

Or ganic Mat e rial(humus) 

16.60 

16.40 

18.40 

Nitrogen 

0.83 

0.32 

0.92 

Nitric acid extract 
Chlorine (Cl) 

traces 

traces 

traces 

Phosphoric acid (P 2 O 5 ) 

0.47 

0.35 

0.39 

Salto-acid extract 

(Kiezelzuur) (SiOg) 

0.11 

0.21 

0.18 

Sulfuric acid (SO 3 ) 

0.03 

0.11 

0.07 

Potash (KjgO) 

0.06 

0.05 

0.05 

Lime (CaO) 

0.54 

0.53 

0.61 

Magnesia (MgO) 

0.28 

0.32 

0.31 

Mangan oxide (MnO) 

0.44 

0.20 

0.22 

Phosphoric acid (P 2 O 5 ) 

0.07 

0.05 

0.04 

Iron oxide (Ee 203 ) 

2.15 

2.41 

2.57 

Alumi num oxide (Al 0 O 3 ) 

6.42 

7.02 

7.03 


/ 


\J6r\ ■ 








I 


_ 3 - 


Subsoil 


Analyses 

of Subsoil - 

Dried at 105° 

C 


• - 


: .Newly Cleared 

Terrain 

: Garden 

40 yrs. old 

: Flat land : 

Rolling Terrain 

Loosely bound water 

21.23# 

22.51# 


21.84# 

Heat loss 

25.75 

28.30 


27.22 

Chemically bound water 

10.53 

12.50 


13.22 

Organic Material (humus) 

15.20 

15.80 


14.00 

Nitrogen 

0.76 

0,79 


0.70 

Nitric-acid extract 
Chlorine (Cl) 

traces 

. traces 


traces 

Phosphoric acid (P 2 O 5 ) 

0.36 

0.39 


0.40 

Salto-acid extract 

Silicon dioxide (SiOg) 

0.17 

0.16 


0.12 

Sulpher Trioxide (SO 3 ) 

0.01 

0.05 


0.03 

Potassium oxide (K 2 O) 

0.05 

0.03 


0.04 

Calcium oxide (CaO) 

0.47 

0.18 


0.19 

Magnesium oxide (MgO) 

0.09 

0.07 


0.05 

Manganese oxide (MnO) 

0.58 

0.39 - 


0.40 

Phosphoric acid (P 9 O 5 ) 

0.03 

0.03 


0.02 

Iron oxide (FegOO 

Aluminum oxide (AlpO 3 ) 

0.93 ' 

0.83 


0.73 

6.54 

5.23 


6.22 


/ 


, Drainage 

i 

« 

Artificial drainage is generally out of the question as it is 
too expensive. Natural drainage is achieved through the usual choice 
of terraced, hilly terrain. Sites are chosen where the subsoil is 
transmittable. Absolutely level terraces assure proper drainage. 

Direction of Slope 

Choice of locality is determined by wind direction, as North 
and Southwest winds can cause great damage, and terrain bared to 
the wind is unsuitable.. 

Rainfall 

Precipitation measured at Buitenzorg —^ 873 feet above 
see level; 

1 . Amount - average annual precipitation: 168.4 inches; 
absolute daily maximum: 5.5 inches; average number of 
rainy daya annually; 238. 

2. Seasonal Distribution: (In inches) 


1/ Rodnfal1 increases with elevation. 

















- 3 - 


JanFob: Mar: Ap r: May: Juno: July: Aug: Sept: Oct: Nov: Doc: 
16.3 14.8 16.5 17.3 14.4 10.7 7.3 9.6 12.6 17.2 17.6 12.5 


Temperature 

icmpcraturc measured at Bandoeng^ 2,346 feet above sea level: 

1* Night: No great variation. 

2. : Average annual temperature: 71.7°F5 absolute maximum: 

93.6°F; absolute minimum: 52.2 'F; average maximum: 3l.5°F; 
average minimum: 6l,6°F. 

8* person al range : There is little seasonal variation in tem¬ 
perature. Temperatures at elevations of quinine plantations 
arc approximately 68°F. at 4,000 feet and 60°F. at 6,000 feet. 

Methods of Production 

Cnoico of location . As climates suitable for Cinchona 
cultivation are found only in mountainous regions, generally only 
rising terrain is available. Best elevations for Cinchona cul¬ 
tivation lie between 4000 feet and 6,600 feet above sea level. 

It is not desirable to go above or below those elevations. 

Cinchona Ledgcriana grows favorably at first belor; 4,000 feet 
but sickness affects the trees around 8 or 10 years of ago, 
causing them to die off, whereas, at 5,000 feet to 6,000 feet, 
trees 15 to 20 years old yield a regular production. Above 
6,600 feet growth is slow and retarded. The growth of Cinchona 
succirubra is extraordinarily slow at 6,600 feet. 

It is inadvisable to plant too high because of the hazard 
of frost which freezes the bark loose. Chances of frost arc 
greater in flat regions. For this reason hilly terrain, if not 
too steep, offers the most advantageous choice and also obviates 
danger of bad water in the subsoil, for roots lying in cold 
damp soil die off. 

So far as possible, terrain with long, broad shelves is 
chosen and narrow ridges are avoided, as the ground of the latter 
is less valuable. Land covered with primeval forests is pre¬ 
ferred, providing the subsoil is transmittable and no one type 
of tree predominates, indicating that the soil is suitable for 
that type only. Under those conditions the same crop can 
normally be planted throe or four times if the ground is properly 
irrigated and provided with some fertilization. 

The chemical and physical composition of the soil is an 
important factor to the growth of Cinchona, as is the availability 
of water from springs or rivers for watering the nurseries. 


2/ Temperature falls 1^. every 328 feet of ascent. 












- 4 - 


Preparation of terrain . It is-essential to clear the land 
entirely. However, the entire area should not be burned as this 
leaves too much ash, making the ground unfruitful for years. ' 

Terracing provides the best ground for Cinchona cultivation 
as it gives the trees more access to the air while retaining the 
same area under cultivation. Terraces must, however, be absolutely 
level to ensure proper drainage. Levelling prevents the upper soil 
from washing away but during this operation care should be taken to 
avoid a residue of unfruitful subsoil. To eliminate washing away 
of top soil, narrow ditches or curb pits are dug. Terraces should 
be of equal width, but unnecessary depth or baring the subsoil 
must be avoided. 

Roads are laid out preliminary to felling the trees. Care 
is taken in laying out the roads which generally have not more 
than a 5° rise (or about 1 to 12). They should not be too small, 
usually about eight feet for the largest and about five feet for 
the smallest. The felled trees are laid in the direction of the 
slope and’are left to rot, thus providing essential fertilizer. 

A small number are burned for ash. 

' Once terraced, the sites are chosen and marked with sticks. 
Absolute uniformity is impossible due to the unevenness of the 
terraces and the presence of stumps left by the original clearing. 
Some ground is naturally prepared to receive the trees, which 
eliminates the necessity of digging pits. However, if the sub¬ 
soil is unsatisfactory pits are essential and are usually dug to 
a length, depth, and breadth of about two feet. Pits are best 
dug during the dry monsoon and refilled in October. Leaving them 
open a few months permits air to reach the soil. 

Seeding . There arc about 3,500,000 seeds in 2.2 pounds of 
Cinchona Lc-dgeriana and 9,000,000 seeds in 2.2 pounds of Cinchona 
succirubra. A good ledger blooms fairly late in life, sometimes 
only after twenty years, and only once a year, whereas the 
succirubra blooms all year. As a general rule the less valuable 
types bloom younger. 

Individual blossoms ripen at different times over a two 
week interval 3 consequently some will burst before others are ripe. 
Therefore, in harvesting the seed, a whole cluster is cut off as 
soon as any fruit springs open. It is left to ripen in the wind 
but sheltered from the direct sun rays. 

Cinchona seeds can be kept for long periods if they are 
entirely ripe, dried in the wind, well cleaned, and stored in 
tightly sealed jars in a dark place. Nevertheless, the sooner they 
are sown after harvesting the better they will germinate. Ex¬ 
periments proved that indoor cultivation was unnecessary and 
seeding is now done in the open air in covered beds. 




- 5 - 

Seed ‘beds are 32 inches wide and are roofed with palm 
leaves. Wooden bars (thin stems of Cinchona or other trees) are 
laid along "beds and held "by sticks of wood. Soil is removed from 
oeds to a depth of 1 to 1 l/3 feet and is prepared by removing 
insect larvae, rotten wood and all other matter harmful to the 
seed. The soil is then returned to the beds and covered with 
about an inch of vegetable humus. The bed is roofed with thatched 
palm leaves, raised about four feet in front and about one foot above 
the ground in back. 

After the humus layer is well moistened about .45 to 60 
grains of seed to ten sq.ue.re feet are sown as evenly as possible 
by hand. The front of the bed is protected by a 3 foot woven bam¬ 
boo screen. 

Seed is then sprinkled lightly (water falling with any 
force will wash seed from its place.) Seed beds are best planted 
at the beginning of the year in order to take advantage of the 
following West Monsoon, or rainy season. Watering should be done 
once a day, preferably in the morning. Care should be exercised 
in watering, as too much moisture is as harmful as too little, 
particularly when the seed swells and sta.rts to germinate, for 
there is danger of mould at this time. 

When the seed germinates, usually a month later, the bamboo 
screen is removed during the day, although replaced during the night 
to keep animals away. Light is essential to plants after sprouting 
and it also minimizes danger of mould. 

After six months (sometimes earlier, depending on the 
elevation) the most developed plants are transplanted. 

i 

Secondary seed beds. Terrain as flat as possible, prefer¬ 
ably near water, is prepared for the seedlings. Rolling terrain is , 
laid out in terraces. The ground is worked to a depth of two feet, 
cleared of wood and roots, and covered with an inch or so of 
vegetable humus. Forked sticks about l-§- feet in length are sunk 
six to ten inches into the ground and alats are laid in 13 to 15 inch 
squares through the forks to form a frame which is covered with 
leaves. This cover is raised about 5 inches above the beds and 
lets in sufficient light and air while shielding the plaits from 
the full force of the rain. This frame can be removed for sprink¬ 
ling during dry spells. Luring the first days of transplaiting it 
is even advisable to protect the sides of beds from direct sunlight. 

Seedlings are placed about two inches apart in "advanced 
seed beds' 1 and as plaits crowd each other, the smallest are removed 
until those left have double the originally allotted space. Weaker 
plants removed in the thinning out process, are plaited in nursery 
beds about four inches apart. These nursery beds are laid out in 
the same mamer as the secondary seed beds but the frame is raised 
higher from the ground. 



- 6 - 


Tho plants which arc left behind in the seed beds can be 
covered with the leaf-covered frame, when it is discarded-from the 
advanced beds, instead of the slanting roof. Thus, even weak plants 
will tend to flourish and even ungerminated seed will sprout. 

This is best done towards the end of the west monsoon when showers 
are light, so that the left-behind plants will be ready for trans¬ 
planting directly to nursery beds by the next west monsoon. 

The above outlined procedure of seeding and transplanting 
will result in well-developed, woody plant material within one 
and a half to two years at an elevation of 6,000 to 7,000 feet; 
even before 1-Jr years at lower elevations. 


Planting in full ground . The best time for planting in 
full ground is at the beginning of the rainy monsoon. Plants 
which grow little or none in tho nursery then get their first 11 shot” 
from tho rains in full ground rather than in the nursery. Trans¬ 
planting is best done in tho early morning but should never be 
undertaken in tho pouring rain. 


Pits arc dug a month beforehand, then refilled and marked. 
Damage to the roots during transplanting should be avoided. 

However, if any harm is inflicted, roots should bo amputated with 
a sharp knife. Attention should be paid to placing tho roots in 
the proper direction. They should never be bent, nor should they 
be planted so deeply that the roots are smothered, or so shallowly 
that they arc light struck. Trunks should be planted as truly 
vertically as possible. Tops of trees can bo trimmed in tho nursery 
before transplanting and only good woody trunks arc selected. 


% 

Sick plants and bastards s 
as they can be used tho next year 
transplanted with healthy trees. 


hould be loft in the nurseries 
for grafting. These arc never 


Spacing . The question of spacing is controversial but 
the generally accepted rule is to plant Cinchona Lodgeriana at 
distances of 3’ x 3* and to space Cinchona succirubra 4’ x 4’. 
Preliminary spacing hinges to a groat extent on tho later handling 
of tho plantation. One objection to close planting is that 
crowding may force the premature removal of young plants with an 
ensuing low production. Slips are also planted 3’ x*3'. Close 
planting is desirable in that a well-shadowed ground reduces 
upkeep costs, and the Kolopeltis insect disappears by itself when 
deprived of the sun's rays, thus obviating constant spraying. 

Greater production results from 3 ! x 3' spacing at 5,000 
to 6,000 feet above sea level; for instance a government plantation 
pla nted in 1904 at 3’ x 3' gave a cumulative total over a period 
of seven years of 344*71 kg of Quinine Sulpha/be whereas a planting 
of 3' x 4’ gave 243.54 ^2 end a 4* x 4* plantation gave 201,72 of 
Quinine Sulphate. 




_ 7 


Cultivation . Gardens should he well cared for and the ground 
kept cleared for the first two or three years, until a roof of 
leaves shades the ground, retarding growth of under "brush. 

The ground is not hoed after planting until six months have 
elapsed, and then hoOing should not come too close to the trees. 
Ground around the trees is loosened periodically to permit infil¬ 
tration of air; this is done "by raking and "by digging narrow 
trenches. 

Grafting . Grafting is essential to the preservation of the 
pure "botanical strain, due to the great variation in seeds from 
even the most perfect trees. Artificial propagation is achieved 
by means of slips or cuttings as well as by grafting. The preferred 
method is grafting of Cinchona Ledgeriana onto trunks of Cinchona 
succirubra. Grafts are growing branches about four inches long and 
about the thickness of a pencil. A slanting cut, as flat as pos¬ 
sible, is made with a sharp knife about half the length of a branch. 
The trunk of the succirubra is slit about two to three inches 
above ground. This must be a perfectly flat cut, slanting inwards 
from above, no deeper than l/3 the thickness of the trunk. The 
incision must be the same length as the wedge shaped cut of the 
graft, and slips must fit incisions exactly. The cut side of a 
graft is laid against the wound in the tree. The tree is then 
bound with soft, non-cuttin. string end sealed with grafting wax. 
Precautions are taken to .avoid damaging the cambium. To insure a 
flow of sap to the graft, a semi-circular incision is made about 
four fingers above the graft. 

The purpose of grafting is to obtain trees whose quinine 
content is known, as well as to obtain the strength of a hardy 
succirubra combined with the superior quality of a Ledgeriana. 
However, up to a certain a^e, pure Ledgeriana trees are known to 
give more sulphuric-acid quinine than do grafts on succirubra trunks. 
The alcaloid content of bark changes through the character of the 
succirubra with a resulting decreased quinine content and increased 
cinchonidine. 

A 90 to 100 per cent success can be counted on in.grafting 
provided grafts are well cared for in the nurseries. Formerly 
grafting took place in gardens, but experiments proved that the 
operation is cheaper, and better control can be exercised, when 
grafting is done in nurseries. 

Except for a few dry months in Java, grafting takes place 
throughout the year. 


Grafting wax is made by melting eight parts of rosin and 
one part of beef fat over a low fire. When cooked this mixture is 
stirred and poured into a pan of water, and then worked by hand 
until malleable. When the color becomes a yellowish white, the 
wax is made into cakes and immersed in cold water. Grafting wax 




- 8 - 

should, "be kept in the shade. When required for sealing grafts, 
these cakes are melted in a copper pan. 

Pruning . Cinchona Ledgeriana trees require pruning , as a 
plantation is well roofed after three years and the second ceiling, 
formed "by lower "branches, must "be removed. At most, only the two 
lowest branches are cut during the first pruning which lets more 
light into the gardens. A first harvest of bark may be obtained 
in this manner. 

Fertilizing . Due to its high nitrogen content, oil cake 
made from castor oil beans is the best fertilizer. After fertilizing, 
yellowness disappears and the plantation become a verdant green. 

Two year old gardens require 2 ounces, three to four y&ar old 
plantations need 3-4 ounces, and older ones up to 1 pound per 
tree. 

Harvesting 

In an average plantation the three-year-old trees are 
pruned for the first crop. After the fourth year the trees are 
again pruned and a few trees are hewn where they are crowded to¬ 
gether. In t he following years less bark is obtained by loping 
off the lower branches and more by thinning out the trees, until 
no more is obtained from pruning and production is solely from- 
felling. Generally branches more than six feet above the ground 
are not removed, as trees pruned too high do not regain a good 
crown which is essential to a well shadowed ground. 

The latest method of harvesting is to always leave some 
trees as cover which effects a saving on soil preparation and 
ground clearing. This also maintains a supply which can be tapped 
during boom periods. 

At bix years of age the trees reach their maximum quinine 
content. The quinine content decreases to the twelfth year and 
then remains constant. After six years the quantity of bark 
increases but it is practically impossible to determine when the 
maximum quantity is reached. 

Whether or not an area should be replanted with the same 
type of Cinchona tree depends on the soil. This is generally not 
advisable. 

As time passes sick trees appear; these are dug up and 
the resulting excavations are filled with Ledgeriana-grafted 
succirubra or hybrid trees. Holes are never left in the plantations 
as they encourage the other trees to sicken. This thinning out 
gives the older trees a chance to develop well and form greater 
quantities of bark. 





- 9 - 


In harvesting it is necessary to differentiate "between 
"bark for quinine extraction and pharmaceutical "bark. The value 
of the latter is greater if the periderma is undamaged and 
adhering moss is left on the "bark. 

Bark for quinine extraction may not he cut, hut should 
he pounded loose from the trunk with a wooden hammer and peeled 
off with a horm knife. Use of steel knives is no ^permitted 
as pieces of wood may thereby he removed with the hark. The 
periderma is removed from the hark hy heating with a wooden 
hammerj later the hark is brushed off. The hark is then 
divided in long or short strips with a knife and peeled off 
the stem. This hark is known to the trade as Cortex Cinchonae 
Sine Epiderma. 

The heating and peeling are done hy women, while men 
laborers fell or dig up the trees. 

Pharmaceutical hark is harvested differently. A ring of 
hark is removed from the base and the tree is felled. Bark 
is removed in strips 3 - 3 $ feet long which are allowed to roll 
up into long cylinders. 

Primary Processing 

The freshly cut strips of Cinchona suecirubra are laid 
in the shade for a few days and left to curl. They are wound 
with bamboo rope, and a stick to hold them straight is inserted 
through the cylinder. Next, the strips are laid in the sun, 
the stick removed, and the hark left to dry in the open air. 
Drying naturally in open air preserves the silvery white appear¬ 
ance which is so desired in pharmaceutical hark. This is not 
always possible during large harvests as the sun does not shine 
very much during the west monsoon, which is the most favorable 
period for harvesting this product. During the east (or dry) 
monsoon the periderma is loosened from the hark, reducing the 
value of the hark. 


Bark which cannot he cut into the specified cylinder 
lengths is harvested as "broken pipe," What cannot he gathered 
as ^broken pipe" is packed in hales as dust. 

Hoot hark of the pharmaceutical product is also boxed in 
pieces. If water is available it is preferable to wa,sh off root 
hark to eliminate sand. 

Bark is graded before packing to assure regularity of 
specimens. Bark from sick trees is packed separately as this 
is of lesser quality. 

Tests made at different seasons proved that the variation 
in quinine content is negligible. Consequently hark can he 
harvested all year in Java. 



- 10 - 


Fresh, newly peeled bark contains about 70 - 75 percent 
of the weight in water. About 60 - 65 percent of this moisture 
is eliminated by open air drying and the 10 - 13 percent remain¬ 
ing is dried out at 125° C. 

Finally the bark is dried in a hot air machine at 100° C. 
Bark which is processed directly in the machine without previous 
open air drying gives a less valuable, strongly colored product. 

While drying in the sun, bark is spread out in pans laid 
across rails. These pans can be covered at night or during rain. 
Careful drying prevents moulding after packaging which would 
reduce the value of the bark. 

Appearance is discounted by the quinine factories, whose 
only interest is in bark from which a high quinine content can 
be easily extracted. This bark is ground to a powder and packed 
in jute sacks of about 220 pounds. 

According to their contents, packages of Cinchona succirubra, 
which is packed in cases, weigh 130 to 200 pounds. 

II. PRODUCTION 

There arc approximately 40,000 acres of Cinchona trees under 
cultivation in Java. Annual production is about 10,000 tons of 
bark with a quinine content of about 600 tons. 

A first harvest is gathered by pruning the lower branches 
after which harvests are made by felling trees during the process 
of thinning out the plantation. Quinine content of the bark in¬ 
creases steadily to the sixth year after which it remains fairly 
constant, declining gradually after the twelfth year. The quan¬ 
tity of bark increases after the sixth year. Variations in 
cultivation, elevation, and other determining factors make it 
practically impossible to ascertain when maximum production has 
been reached. 

At most, productivity can be counted on to last twenty-five 
years, after which gardens are generally replanted with hybrid 
seedlings. Fhilc a plantation can be renewed up to three or 
four times, a decreased production will result from each successive 
planting. Consequently, it is preferable to turn the ground over 
to some other crop before a new Cinchona planting is undertaken. 

Following is a table showing the results of tests made 
on experimental trees at Netherlands East Indies government 
plantationss 



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12 - 


III. DEVIATIONS FROM OPTIMUM PHYSICAL CONDITIONS AND THEIR EPPECTS 

Variations in soil . No data available. . 

Variations in subsoil . No data available except that an 
accumulation of water in the subsoil will kill off roots lying in 
this cold dampness. 

Variations in drainage . Terracing offers the only drainage 
as drainage is too costly to be undertaken. Terraces must be 
absolutely level as otherwise water will accumulate in the subsoil. 
Unless curb pits and 'ditches are dug the top soil will wash away. 

Variations due to direction of slope . Storms accompanying 
the North and Southwest Monsoons bring havoc if the slope is 
bared to them. For this reason only protected slopes are used. 

Variations in rainfall . Droughts due to lateness of rainy 
monsoon reta.rd growth. 

Variations in tremperature . Growth is retarded in planta¬ 
tions at elevations higher than. 6,600 feet (60°P), while trees 
tend to sicken and die within ten years when planted below 4,000 
feet (68°P). Temperatures vary but little during day or night in 
this equatorial region. The chief danger is from night frost 
at too high elevations. 

IV. DISEASES OP CINCHONA TREES 


Djamoer q epas 

Djamoer oepas—^is caused by Corticium javanicum Zimm. 

This mold attacks many other plants besides Cinchona, among others: 
coffee, tea, cocoa, Hevea, nutmeg, etc.— ( any of which can 
transmit the disease to Cinchona trees. Humidity in the air is 
a contributing factor to the spread of this mold, while small 
plants attacked by Helopeltis often become infected. The only 
preventative is to cut off and burn the affected areas. 

Trunk Cancer 


This disease is due to a mold caused 
Olpidiaceae. Actually trees show no sign of 
dead places on the bark which penetrate into 
same mold is also the cause of a root collar 
young trees in nursery beds. This infection 
to any of the treatments attempted. 


by Chytridinae, 
canker, but have 
the wood. This 
disease attacking 
has failed to respond 


1/ 0 epas (Malay) - plant bane 
2/ Dr. A. Rant - "Mededeelingen Departement 
No. 13, 1911. 


van Landbouw," 














- 13 - 

Root Mold. 

.Various types of root mold appear among Cinchona trees. 

It is typical that Cinchona trees die off in circles around 
certain types of tree stumps. There is no remedy known for this. 

Mopo 

ivlop'o is a disease of young Cinchona plants caused by mold 
due to excessive humidity. 

V. INSECT'S, AND OTHER RESTS 

Much feared of the Coleopterren are the larvae of certain 
Melolonthiden. 

Great, though temporary, damage is attributed to cater¬ 
pillars among which are: 

1. Attacus Atlas and A. ricini 

2. Daphnis hypotheus 

3. Odonestis plagifera 

4. Metanastria hyrtaca 

5. Euproctis flexuosa 

6. Cricula trifenestrata 

Daphnis hypotheus is difficult to trace as it takes on the 
color of the bark, whether brown or white. Euproctis flexuosa is 
best fought by butning the nests and the young caterpillars which 
are found on the underside of the leaves. 

The worst enemy of the Cinchona tree is the Helopeltis 
Antoni i Sign . A full-grown Helopeltis measures 11 mm. The female 
has a reddish brown, and the male a black torax. These insects 
feed oh the sap of the leaves which quickly turn brown and curl 
up. The worst period is at the start of the dry season just 
after cessation of the rains(in Java, during April and May). 

Helopeltis appears mainly in low lying plantations. They 
are seldom apparent at 6000 feet. It is remarked that the insect 
disappears by itself when the plantation has been roofed over. 
Enemies of this insect are not known; birds make no attempt to 
destroy them. 

Certain Ledgerianas suffer very little from this pest and 
this type of tree is more strongly cultivated since this discovery. 

After an attack by Helopeltis the trees often have a 
tendency to contract Corticium javanicum Zimin, as the infected 
places are sensitive to mold. 

The only effective control of this insect is to keep the 
ground perfectly cleared and to plant the trees closer together 
as the early "roofing” of the plantation eliminates Helopeltis. 







TABLE OF SOURCES 


"Dr. K. W. van Gorkom* s 1 Oost-Indische Cultures, ,! " 
new edition edited "by Dr. H.C. Prinsen Geerligs 

Vol. I, II, III. 

"Statistical Abstract of the Netherlands Indies, 1940" 
published by Department of Economic Affairs, 

Central Bureau of Statistics (Batavia) 

"Do Landbouwexportgewassen van Ncderlandsch-Indie in 
1938" published by Department of Economic Affairs 
(Batavia) 

"1930 Handbook of the Netherlands East Indies" 
published by Department of Economic Affairs (Batavia) 

"Kina," by P. van Leersum 
"Oost-Indische Cultures," Vol. III. 




* 


7 

t 

51 


/ 



"4 BOARD OF ECONOMIC WARFARE. 
Office of Economic Warfare Analysis 
Far Eastern Division 


3M-FE-14 



J 


AGRICULTURE IN Tiff NETHERLANDS INDIE S 
6. Climate 


April 23, 1942 


W n Kimpfr (IknvWi) 













> 



Climate. General 


The Netherlands Indies extend from 6° north latitude to 11° south 
latitude and from 95° to 141° east 3,ongitude. Although it is tropical 
country, Netherlands India has a moderate climate with no great ex¬ 
tremes. Factors tempering the sun's rays are cloudiness and dampness. 
There is no great variation in temperature even during the night. The 
highest temperature ever recorded in Batavia was 96.4° and the lowest 
was 64.9°. 


The sun passes its zenith twice during each year, reaching its 
height in July and December. Seasonal variations are the result of 
monsoons. 


Southwest Monsoon 

In July an area of high pressure moves from Australia towards an 
area of low pressure in Asia, resulting in a strong southwest monsoon, 
originating in the Arabian Sea and the Gulf of Bengal. This is the so- 
called "dry" season which is felt particularly on the East and Southeast 
coasts of Java. There is no trace of this monsoon on the west coast 
of Sumatra. The west monsoon starts forming about November 17 to 21. 

Northeast Monsoon 


In January the direction of atmospheric pressure is from Asia to 
Australia, resulting in a powerful northeast monsoon which ranges over 
British India, the Arabian Sea and the Gulf of Bengal. This is the 
"rainy season" or the "good" monsoon. In Atjeh, the northernmost province 
of Sumatra, the west monsoon is felt at this period. The east monsoon 
forms around April 6-10. 


Temperature 


Readings for Batavia are typical of all coastal regions in Java. 
The temperature falls 1° F every 328 feet of ascent. 


Temperature Averages 



:Batavia 

sBandoeing 

:Pontianak : 

Medan 

: Koepang 

Average annual 

78.6° F 

71.7° F 

79.2° F 

77.4° F 

79.2° F 

Absolute maximum 

96.4° 

93.6° 

94.1° 

95.9° 

96.2° 

Absolute minimum 

64.9° 

52.2° 

69.80 

64° 

59.4° 

Average maximum 

86.2° 

(31.5° 

87.3° 

86.9° 

80.1° 

Average minimum 

73° 

61.6° 

73.9° 

71.1° 

71.9° 










t' 











- 2 - 


Cloudiness 

(Scale: 0 = entirely clear; 10 = entirely overcast) 

Batavia - average annual 6.35 

January 7.5; July 4.6; August 4.2 
Pekalongan - average annual 5.08 
Pasoeroean - average annual 4.57 


Sunshine 


Average annual sunshine : 



Batavia 48.6%; Pasoeroean 56.5%. 


City 


__ Percentage of Possib l e Suns 'l ine __ 

: Jan : Feb: Mar : Apr: i!ay: June: July: Aug : S : Oct : :I ov: De c: Total 


Batavia 

37 

37 

50 

60 

65 

62 

64 

69 

68 

60 

47 

38 

55 11 

Pasoeroean 

40 

35 

48 

56 

58 

62 

65 

67 

69 

64 

54 

44 

55 


Relative Humidity 

Average annual relative humidity at Batavia 83%. Highest at night. 

_Relative humidity by months. Batavia (Percent)_ 

Jan. : Feb,: Mar.: Aar.: May: June: July: Aug.: Sent,: Oct.: Nov.:Dec,: Ann. 

87 88 86 85 84 83 81 78 78 79 82 85 83 

Rainfall 

The highest average annual rainfall for all Java is 48 inches, the 
lowest is 27 inches. 

However, this is based on an average of all the meteorological 
stations in Java, some of which are located in the "dry" areas of the 
Island. For the rainfall in specific areas and during certain seasons, 
the appended tables should be consulted. Considerable differences occur 
from year to year, even for the same areas and seasons. 


1/ Another source gives this figure as 67%. 



































































' 
















































Thunder and Rain 


Percentage of thunder and rain at Batavia: 



Thunder 

Rain 

Midnight - 6 a.m. 

18. 3 % 

21 . 5 % 

6 a.in. - noon 

5.4 

15.8 

Noon - 6 p.m. 

50.1 

34.3 

6 p.m. - midnight 

26.2 

27.9 


Hail is unknown in Batavia, although it has been observed in 
Buitenzorg and in the Preanger District. 


Netherlands East Indies, 


Average Annual Rainfalli/ 


(inches) 


Batavia. 71 

Bandoeng. 77 

Samarang. 87 

Sourabaya...... 68 

Medan. 

Padang. 

Falembang. 89 

Pontianak. 127 

Balik Papan. 78 

Manado.. 107 

Macassar. 113 

Amboina. 139 

Koepang. 56 


1/ Of places where rainfall is ob¬ 
served, Paloe (Manado) with a 
yearly average of 22 inches has 
the least rainfall and Tendjo 
(Banjoemas) with a yearly average 
of 277 inches has the highest. 











































































Netherlands East Indies, Monthly Rainfall in 1939 



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Netherlands East Indies, Meteorological Observations 


(year 1 v averaaos') 
— * e - _ - - 



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Sea level 

• 

• 

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! number of 
stormy days 

Average rain¬ 

fall in 
inches 

00 

o rt 
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rt o >5 

C 

O £ *ri 

> 3 rt 
, < SC Jh 

Batavia 


- 

* 

26 1,008.9 

67 

79.2° 

83 

434 

71 

135.5 

Bandoeng 

2 

,409 

63 

72° 

77 

199 

77 

143.4 

Samarang 



r-t 

i - 

74 

80° 

77 

— 

87 

139.0 

Sourabaya 



23 * - 

78 

81° 

79 

64 

68 

117.5 

Medan 



S3 1,006.6 

57 

78.5° 

84 

154 

79 

142.3 

Padang 



23 1,009.5 

67 

79.?° 

79 

72 

175 

191.3 

Palembang 



— — 

— 

— 

— 

— 

89 

161.0 

Pontianak 



11 1;0C9.5 

59 

81° 

83 

31 

127 

183.7 

Balikpapan 



3 1;009.5 

— 

/o,5 

86 

- 

78 

147.5 

Manado 



22 1,008.4 

. 67 

79.2° 

82 

39 

107 

165.7 

Macassar 



7 

74 

79.2° 

80 

— 

113 

133.6 

Amboina 



14 1:009.2 

55 

79.2° 

S3 

66 

139 

201.4 

Kcepang 


150 1,005.5 

81 

80° 

72 

61 

56 

79.9 


1/ 1,000 milli-bars - 750 mm of mercury. 

























TABLE OF SOURCES 


”Dr. K. W. van Gorkom's ’ Oost-Ir.dischc Cultures,’” 
new edition edited by Dr. H. C. Prinsen Geerligs 
VolS.I, II, III. 

’’Statistical Abstract of the Netherlands Indies, 1940” 
published by Department of Economic Affairs, 

Central Bureau of Statistics (Batavia). 

”De Landbouwexportgewassen van Nederlandsch-Indie in 193S” 
published by Department of Economic Affairs (Batavia). 

”1930 Handbook of the Netherlands East Indies” 
published by Department of Economic Affairs (Batavia). 

”Het Klimaat in Nederlandsch Indie” by Dr. P. J. van der Stok 
”0ost-Indische Cultures,” Vol. I. 















































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